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Articles 3271 - 3300 of 9484

Full-Text Articles in Business

In The Name Of Covid-19: Is The Ecb Fuelling The Climate Crisis?, Theodor Florian Cojoianu, E. Collins, Andrea G. F. Hoepner, D. Magill, T. O'Neill, F. I. Schneider Jul 2020

In The Name Of Covid-19: Is The Ecb Fuelling The Climate Crisis?, Theodor Florian Cojoianu, E. Collins, Andrea G. F. Hoepner, D. Magill, T. O'Neill, F. I. Schneider

Research Collection College of Integrative Studies

The current global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions trajectory indicates that the world is likely to experience catastrophic consequences due to climate change, unless swift action is taken towards funding green solutions and the defunding of fossil fuel activities (IPCC 2018). While there is an extensive academic literature on the links between environmental and fiscal policies and the low-carbon energy transition (Aghion et al. 2016; Ambec et al. 2013; Cojoianu et al. 2020), as well as on optimal environmental policies in times of economic downturns (van den Bijgaart and Smulders 2018), we know less about what the role of central banks …

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Analisis Faktor-Faktor Produktivitas Usaha Tambak Udang L.Vannamei: Studi Kasus Pada Desa Bumi Pratama Mandira, Kecamatan Sungai Menang, Sumatera Selatan, Raka Respati Priyambodo, Rizky Luxianto Jun 2020

Analisis Faktor-Faktor Produktivitas Usaha Tambak Udang L.Vannamei: Studi Kasus Pada Desa Bumi Pratama Mandira, Kecamatan Sungai Menang, Sumatera Selatan, Raka Respati Priyambodo, Rizky Luxianto

Jurnal Manajemen dan Usahawan Indonesia

The large economic potential of Indonesian aquaculture industry, especially in L.vannamei species, shows how vital it is to decide the correct aquaculture methods to maximize productivity. Bumi Pratama Mandira Village in Sungai Menang Region, South Sumatra is an area whose main economic activity comes from shrimp farming activity and mostly cultivating L.vannamei. The village located in one of the most remote regions in South Sumatra, limiting farmer access and present them with unique conditions for shrimp farming. This uniqueness raising the urgency to select the correct methods to sustain the entire village economic conditions. This study will evaluate three cultivation …

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Pengaruh Aktivitas Social Media Marketing Terhadap Brand Trust, Brand Equity, Dan Brand Loyalty Pada Platform Social Media Instagram, Alfian Dally Irawan, Aswin Hadisumarto Jun 2020

Pengaruh Aktivitas Social Media Marketing Terhadap Brand Trust, Brand Equity, Dan Brand Loyalty Pada Platform Social Media Instagram, Alfian Dally Irawan, Aswin Hadisumarto

Jurnal Manajemen dan Usahawan Indonesia

This study aims to determine the effect of social media marketing activities as seen from the dimen- sions of entertainment, interaction, trendiness, customization, and word-of-mouth, on brand trust, brand equity and brand loyalty conducted by Instagram social media. The study uses the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) method with a sample of 617 respondents who are Indonesian residents ranging in age from 17 to 35 years and have used Instagram social media for a minimum of six months. The results showed that social media marketing activities viewed based on entertainment, interaction, trendiness, customization, and word-of-mouth had a positive effect on brand …

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Analisis Pengaruh Struktur Kepemilikan Keluarga Terhadap Kinerja Perusahaan: Studi Empiris Pada Perusahaan Non Keuangan Terdaftar Di Bursa Efek Indonesia Periode 2009-2014, Eva Septiana, Zuliani Dalimunthe, Wasilah Wasilah Jun 2020

Analisis Pengaruh Struktur Kepemilikan Keluarga Terhadap Kinerja Perusahaan: Studi Empiris Pada Perusahaan Non Keuangan Terdaftar Di Bursa Efek Indonesia Periode 2009-2014, Eva Septiana, Zuliani Dalimunthe, Wasilah Wasilah

Jurnal Manajemen dan Usahawan Indonesia

The study aims to analyse how the ownership structure of a family company affects the company’s performance. The company’s performance was measured using Tobin’s Q to see how the market re- sponds to strategies and policies taken by the family company. The study took samples of 147 family companies listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange during 2009-2014. The results showed that the family company had significantly lower performance compared to non-family companies, but the relationship between ownership by the family is a quadratic in which there is a direction reversal at the 76% ownership rate. The study also found that …

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Analisis Faktor Risiko Pada Saham Perbankan Asean – 4 Periode 2006 – 2015 Dengan Pendekatan Fama And French Three Factor Model Dan Intertemporal Capital Asset Pricing Model, Lita Tiami Adela, Zaafri Ananto Husodo Jun 2020

Analisis Faktor Risiko Pada Saham Perbankan Asean – 4 Periode 2006 – 2015 Dengan Pendekatan Fama And French Three Factor Model Dan Intertemporal Capital Asset Pricing Model, Lita Tiami Adela, Zaafri Ananto Husodo

Jurnal Manajemen dan Usahawan Indonesia

This research aims to determine the effect of market, size, and value on Fama and French Three Factor Model toward portofolio excess return using value weighted and equally weighted method on ASEAN – 4 banking stock. This research also determine the effect of market factor and term struc- tured factor on Intertemporal Capital Asset Pricing Model on ASEAN – 4 banking stock. The result shows only market factor that has significant effect towards banking stock portofolio excess return on Fama and French Three Factor Model, using both value weighted dan equally weighted. The term- structure factor on Intertemporal Capital Asset …

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Retensi Karyawan Pada Usaha Kecil: Studi Eksploratori Pada Klaster Usaha Kecil Menengah (Ukm) Pengolahan Logam Di Kebasen, Tegal, Fanny Martdianty Jun 2020

Retensi Karyawan Pada Usaha Kecil: Studi Eksploratori Pada Klaster Usaha Kecil Menengah (Ukm) Pengolahan Logam Di Kebasen, Tegal, Fanny Martdianty

Jurnal Manajemen dan Usahawan Indonesia

This study aims to determine the factors that influence voluntary turnover and how owners/ man- agers in SMEs conduct retention on their employees because the studies related to HR management in SMEs are still relatively few. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews with five own- ers /SME managers and 19 employees from five metal processing SMEs in Kebasen, Tegal. From the results, some findings based on employee information revealed that the reasons for employees leaving were mainly related to compensation issues and the intention to open a similar business. Whereas from the owner/ manager’s perspective, the reason employees leaving are: …

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Ceo Overconfidence, Esg Disclosure, And Firm Risk, Kurnia Indah Sumunar, Chaerul D. Djakman Jun 2020

Ceo Overconfidence, Esg Disclosure, And Firm Risk, Kurnia Indah Sumunar, Chaerul D. Djakman

Jurnal Akuntansi dan Keuangan Indonesia

Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) has increasingly attracted the attention of firms and stakeholders. The purpose of this study is to examine whether the mediating role of ESG disclosure has a negative effect on CEO overconfidence and firm risk, especially based on investors' perspectives. Many studies on ESG disclosure were conducted in Europe and America. Most ESG disclosures are measured using manual checklist based on annual reports or firm websites. By using panel dataset of 225 manufacturing firms in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand from 2012-2016 obtained from Thomson Reuters’ ESG score, the research shows that CEO overconfidence …

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Internal Control Practices Of Mosques In Java, Indonesia, Nining Islamiyah, Siti Alawiah Siraj, Ahmad Zamri Osman Jun 2020

Internal Control Practices Of Mosques In Java, Indonesia, Nining Islamiyah, Siti Alawiah Siraj, Ahmad Zamri Osman

Jurnal Akuntansi dan Keuangan Indonesia

Internal controls are necessary tools to help organizations attain their organizational goals. Lack of these controls in any type of organizations could lead to fraudulent activities, which consequently may hamper the achievement of organizational goals. This study aims to investigate the internal control practices in two Indonesian mosques; Mosque A and Mosque B. The study employed the Committee of Sponsoring Organization (COSO 2013) framework of internal controls to frame the investigation of internal control practices in these two mosques. Data collection was undertaken through interviews and reviews of relevant documents. The findings revealed that the two selected mosques, Mosque A …

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What Explains Students’ Intentions To Pursue Public Accountants As A Career?, Danar Sutopo Sidig, Andar Ramona Sinaga Jun 2020

What Explains Students’ Intentions To Pursue Public Accountants As A Career?, Danar Sutopo Sidig, Andar Ramona Sinaga

Jurnal Akuntansi dan Keuangan Indonesia

Public accountants play crucial roles in creating trustworthy information for economic development. Ironically, many parts of the world, including Indonesia, experience a shortage of Public Accountants despite the abundant number of accounting students. This study, built on the Theory of Planned Behaviour, aims to examine factors that explain students’ intentions to pursue public accountants as a career. To answer the question, this study uses questionnaires distributed to 115 accounting students from across Indonesia participating in CPA Days 2019. Utilising Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) technique to analyse their responses, this study has shown that students’ intentions are significantly affected by their …

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Does The Recently Implemented Regulation On Country-By-Country Reporting Deter Tax Avoidance?, Nala Kurniawan, Anggari Dwi Saputra Jun 2020

Does The Recently Implemented Regulation On Country-By-Country Reporting Deter Tax Avoidance?, Nala Kurniawan, Anggari Dwi Saputra

Jurnal Akuntansi dan Keuangan Indonesia

To adhere with Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Action 13, Indonesia enacted regulations concerning Transfer Pricing Documentation and Country-by-Country Reporting (CbCR) to address the issue of tax avoidance. Those regulations introduced the requirement of CbCR in Indonesia, where Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) operating in Indonesia are required to provide tax authorities with geographic breakdown of their profitability, tax payments, and activities wherever they operate. Using the newly implemented CbCR in Indonesia as a treatment for private disclosure requirement, this study examines the effect of CbCR on MNEs tax avoidance. Employing EUR 750 million consolidated revenue threshold for disclosure and utilizing …

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The Effect Of Concentrated Ownership On Bank Profitability In Indonesia, Michelle Priscilla Amanda, Serafina Lam, Rinaningsih ., Yang Elvi Adelina Jun 2020

The Effect Of Concentrated Ownership On Bank Profitability In Indonesia, Michelle Priscilla Amanda, Serafina Lam, Rinaningsih ., Yang Elvi Adelina

Jurnal Akuntansi dan Keuangan Indonesia

This paper examines the association between concentrated ownership and the profitability of banks in Indonesia during the period from 2012 to 2018 with a total sample of 93 banks or 651 observations. This study applies the Random Effect regression method, and reveals a non-significant association between concentrated ownership and bank profitability as measured by ROA and ROE. It indicates that a majority of shareholders tend to use their power to exploit minority shareholders, which can also strengthen the monitoring effect. However, the regression also indicates that there is a significant non-linear relationship between concentrated ownership and profitability when measured by …

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Anti-Corruption Disclosure And Earnings Management: A Case In Indonesian Capital Market, Putri Dwi Aprilia Nur Khasanah, Indra Wijaya Kusuma Jun 2020

Anti-Corruption Disclosure And Earnings Management: A Case In Indonesian Capital Market, Putri Dwi Aprilia Nur Khasanah, Indra Wijaya Kusuma

Jurnal Akuntansi dan Keuangan Indonesia

This study investigates the relationship between anti-corruption disclosure and earnings management. Firms that disclose anti-corruption are related to the lower earnings management. The sample consists of 207 firm-year observation from 2016-2018. The data are hand-collected for the anti-corruption disclosure and the rest of the firm’s data are obtained from the Osiris database. Our result indicate a significant negative relationship between anti-corruption disclosure and earnings management. The relationship is more pronounce for the profitable and smaller firms. The high level of anti-corruption disclosure reported by the company can reduce earnings management actions in the company and show awareness, ability, skill, actualization …

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Board Gender Diversity, Esg, And Corporate Performance, Novena Sutiono Jun 2020

Board Gender Diversity, Esg, And Corporate Performance, Novena Sutiono

Honors Theses

No abstract available.

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Stock Market Information And Security Prices, Haoyuan Li Jun 2020

Stock Market Information And Security Prices, Haoyuan Li

Dissertations and Theses Collection (Open Access)

Chapter 1: Analyst report content and stock market anomalies A series of recent papers document that security analyst recommendations tend to contradict stock-mispricing signals. This seems at odds with the large prior literature on the investment value of analyst recommendations. What justifications do analysts make when they write reports on mispriced stocks? I use the latest techniques in machine learning and textual analysis to categorize the qualitative information in a large sample of analyst reports. I find that report content can be intuitively classified into five categories or topics: 1) Growth, 2) Earnings, 3) New developments, 4) Management transactions, and …

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Informing The Creation Of A Financial Literacy Tool For Cal Poly Students, Kelly Michelle Carroll Jun 2020

Informing The Creation Of A Financial Literacy Tool For Cal Poly Students, Kelly Michelle Carroll

Communication Studies

This research project examines the wants, needs, and desires of Cal Poly students to inform the creation of a financial literacy tool (tentatively named “MoneySmart”) to be created by another student. The methodologies used to gauge these metrics were a literature review and questionnaire. The literature review aids in understanding research regarding the current state of student financial literacy in the United States, including student attitudes toward the topic. Subsequent findings were used to create the questionnaire, which inquired about students’ financial stress, confidence in their abilities to manage their personal finances, specific interests for the design and contents of …

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A Proposal Digital Marketing Strategy For Marcheluzzo Srl: Training And Evaluating A Prediction Model For The Number Of Adv. Impressions, Charles Alves De Castro Jun 2020

A Proposal Digital Marketing Strategy For Marcheluzzo Srl: Training And Evaluating A Prediction Model For The Number Of Adv. Impressions, Charles Alves De Castro

Articles

This research aims to describe a digital marketing strategy elaborated to be deployed in the MarcheluzzoSrl Company located in Italy. In addition, it intends to give a wide range of information to the company about its customers, target, competitors, market, digital marketing strategy, and potential recommendations. It is also important to highlight that this strategy is focused on the Brazilian market. Most of the information collected for the situational analysis and many other components for this research were gathered through the author`s perception during his internship in the company. The methodology includes secondary data collected through field observation in the …

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Corporate Governance: Of Misses, Awareness And Improvements, Havovi Heerjee Joshi Jun 2020

Corporate Governance: Of Misses, Awareness And Improvements, Havovi Heerjee Joshi

Asian Management Insights

Have a more robust and effective corporate governance framework that includes a focus on environmental sustainability and social impact.

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China's Anti‐Corruption Campaign And Financial Reporting Quality, Ole-Kristian Hope, Heng Yue, Qinlin Zhong Jun 2020

China's Anti‐Corruption Campaign And Financial Reporting Quality, Ole-Kristian Hope, Heng Yue, Qinlin Zhong

Research Collection School Of Accountancy

We examine the impact of China’s anti-corruption campaign on firm-level financial reporting quality (FRQ). As an important component of the anti-corruption campaign, in October 2013, “Rule 18” was issued to prohibit party and government officials from serving as directors for publicly listed firms. The regulation led to a large number of official directors resigning from their roles as directors involuntarily. As such, Rule 18 has effectively weakened, if not fullydiscontinued, the political connections of the firms that previously hired officials as directors. Our empirical analyses employ a difference-in-differences research design with firm fixed effects and PSM to examine the pre- …

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Stochastic Capacity Management In The Presence Of Production Resource Disruption, Boya Yang Jun 2020

Stochastic Capacity Management In The Presence Of Production Resource Disruption, Boya Yang

Dissertations and Theses Collection (Open Access)

This dissertation studies the capacity investment decision of a manufacturing firm facing demand uncertainty in the presence of shortage possibility in production resources, as often ignored in the literature. These production resources can be physical resources (component / raw material) or financial resources (working capital / budget). The shortage in these resources can be caused by a variety of supply chain disruptions; examples include global disruptions like COVID-19 and financial crisis in 2008 and local disruptions like shortage of components/workforce. The dissertation analyses two important issues related to capacity management: (i) the effect of production resource disruption on the capacity …

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Fomc Playbook: The Only New Game In Town?, Thomas Lam Jun 2020

Fomc Playbook: The Only New Game In Town?, Thomas Lam

Sim Kee Boon Institute for Financial Economics

In light of the Covid-19 pandemic, the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), while taking more aggressive actions, seems to have stuck more or less to the standard playbook of responding to “unusual and exigent circumstances”. This essentially calls for slashing conventional policy rates to their effective lower bound, accompanied by forward guidance, embarking on asset purchases, rolling out emergency liquidity facilities and experimenting with lending programmes. But policymakers, with the required US Treasury backstop, have also introduced more creative programmes to encourage credit extension and reached into different market segments.

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Fin Vs. Tech: Are Trust And Knowledge Creation Key Ingredients In Fintech Start-Up Emergence And Financing?, Theodor Florian Cojoianu, Gordon L. Clark, Andreas G. F. Hoepner, Vladimir. Pažitka, Dariusz. Wójcik Jun 2020

Fin Vs. Tech: Are Trust And Knowledge Creation Key Ingredients In Fintech Start-Up Emergence And Financing?, Theodor Florian Cojoianu, Gordon L. Clark, Andreas G. F. Hoepner, Vladimir. Pažitka, Dariusz. Wójcik

Research Collection College of Integrative Studies

We investigate how the emergence of fintech start-ups and their financing is shaped by regional knowledge creation and lack of trust in financial services incumbents across 21 OECD countries, 226 regions and over the 2007–2014 period. We find that knowledge generated in the IT sector is much more salient for fostering new fintech start-ups than knowledge generated in the financial services sector. Additionally, the importance of new knowledge created in the financial services sector (IT sector) increases (decreases) as fintech start-ups grow and seek financing. When the level of trust in financial services incumbents falls within a region, this is …

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Gender And Beauty In The Financial Analyst Profession: Evidence From The United States And China, Congcong Li, An-Ping Lin, Hai Lu, Kevin Veenstra Jun 2020

Gender And Beauty In The Financial Analyst Profession: Evidence From The United States And China, Congcong Li, An-Ping Lin, Hai Lu, Kevin Veenstra

Research Collection School Of Accountancy

We examine how gender and beauty affect the likelihood of being voted as an All-Star in the financial analyst profession in both the United States and China. We find that female analysts are more likely to be voted as All-Star analysts in the United States, but good-looking female U.S. analysts are less likely to be voted as All-Stars. The conclusion is the opposite for Chinese analysts. We find that female analysts in China are less likely to be voted as All-Stars, but the likelihood increases with their facial attractiveness. These findings implicate a beauty penalty for female analysts in the …

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Three Essays On Ceo Characteristics And Corporate Bankruptcy, Rajib Chowdhury Jun 2020

Three Essays On Ceo Characteristics And Corporate Bankruptcy, Rajib Chowdhury

Theses and Dissertations in Business Administration

Scholarly studies have focused on the impact of managerial characteristics on various corporate activities. Following this stream of literature, this dissertation empirically examines the potential effects of three major Chief Executive Officer (CEO) characteristics, i.e., CEO ability, CEO risk taking behavior induced by compensation structure, and CEO overconfidence on corporate bankruptcies. Essay 1 examines whether chief executive officers (CEOs) are to be blamed for corporate failure. Using alternative measures of CEO ability, we document that high-ability CEOs are less likely to be associated bankruptcy. Bankruptcy-related high-ability CEOs manage to salvage their post-bankruptcy careers either with the reorganized firms or with …

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Two Essays On The Microstructure Of The Housing Market: Agents' Diffused Effort And Sellers' Behavior Bias, Zhaohui Li Jun 2020

Two Essays On The Microstructure Of The Housing Market: Agents' Diffused Effort And Sellers' Behavior Bias, Zhaohui Li

Theses and Dissertations in Business Administration

For the first essay, we generalize the classic Williams [1998 RFS] brokerage model by introducing the diffused effort. That is, the agent can cross-utilize effort spending on one listing to another one. Besides, the agent can manage heterogeneous housing assets. One counterintuitive finding in Williams’ paper is the absence of the agency problem. As a special case in our model, we recover the agency problem. We examine the positive externality due to the diffused effort and show that it depends on the agent’s inventory size. Hence there exists a trade-off between agents’ effort spending on existing listings and on finding …

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The Global Sustainability Footprint Of Sovereign Wealth Funds, Hao Liang, Luc Renneboog Jun 2020

The Global Sustainability Footprint Of Sovereign Wealth Funds, Hao Liang, Luc Renneboog

Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business

With the emergence of sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) around the world managing equity of over $8 trillion, their impact on the corporate landscape and social welfare is being scrutinized. This study investigates whether and how SWFs incorporate environmental, social, and governance (ESG) considerations in their investment decisions in publicly listed corporations, as well as the subsequent evolution of target firms' ESG performance. We find that SWF funds do consider the level of past ESG performance as well as recent ESG score improvement when taking ownership stakes in listed companies. These results are driven by the SWF funds that do have …

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Risk Premium Spillovers Among Stock Markets: Evidence From Higher-Order Moments, Marinela Adriana Finta, Sofiane Aboura Jun 2020

Risk Premium Spillovers Among Stock Markets: Evidence From Higher-Order Moments, Marinela Adriana Finta, Sofiane Aboura

Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business

We investigate the volatility and skewness risk premium spillovers among the U.S., U.K., German, and Japanese stock markets. We define risk premia as the difference between risk-neutral and realized moments. Our findings highlight that during periods of stress, cross-market and cross-moment spillovers increase and that these increases are mirrored by a decrease in within-market effects. We document strong bidirectional spillovers between volatility and skewness risk premia and emphasize the prominent role played by the volatility risk premium. Finally, we show that several announcements drive the time-varying risk premium spillovers.

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Are Corporate Spin-Offs Prone To Insider Trading?, Patrick Augustin, Menachem Brenner, Jianfeng Hu, Marti Subrahmanyam Jun 2020

Are Corporate Spin-Offs Prone To Insider Trading?, Patrick Augustin, Menachem Brenner, Jianfeng Hu, Marti Subrahmanyam

Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business

Despite abundant empirical evidence of informed trading ahead of major corporate events, no such evidence has been reported in the case of corporate spinoff (SP) announcements. This is surprising, as SP announcements are unexpected, and are also associated with a positive price jump in the parent company’s stock. Using a sample of 280 US announcement events from 1996 to 2013, we document significant pre-announcement informed trading activity in options for about 9 to 16% of events in our sample. In contrast, we find statistically insignificant evidence of informed trading in stocks, suggesting that informed traders employ leverage through options. In …

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Strategies To Prevent And Detect Occupational Fraud In Small Retail Businesses, Marquita V. Davis, David Harris Iii May 2020

Strategies To Prevent And Detect Occupational Fraud In Small Retail Businesses, Marquita V. Davis, David Harris Iii

International Journal of Applied Management and Technology

The objective of this multiple case study was to explore internal control strategies owners of small retail businesses in southeastern Pennsylvania used to prevent and detect occupational fraud. The results of this study indicated that there are areas for action that owners of small retail businesses could take to prevent and detect occupational fraud. Strategies business owners could implement to protect their businesses from occupational fraud include monitoring, employee identity documents to track employee activity, separation of duties, and communication with employees. Small business owners serve their communities by focusing on wealth distribution, including donations to local charities that foster …

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Buffett’S Derivatives: Disruptive Financing At Low Cost, Florencia Roca, Juan Carlos Sanchez Meyer May 2020

Buffett’S Derivatives: Disruptive Financing At Low Cost, Florencia Roca, Juan Carlos Sanchez Meyer

Journal of New Finance

The well-established methodology for valuing options, the Black & Scholes formula, has been successfully challenged by Warren Buffet; who not only has been critical of the formula for the case of long-dated options, but has also applied a different approach in multi-billion derivative contracts. We study Berkshire Hathaway’s Equity Put transactions from a value-investing point of view. We show that Buffett is not using them as speculative investments, but as a disruptive -and cheap- financing source. We uncover Buffett’s methodology for valuing long-dated Equity Puts as long-term loans.

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Are Coco Bonds Suitable As Core Capital Instruments?, Kevin Dowd May 2020

Are Coco Bonds Suitable As Core Capital Instruments?, Kevin Dowd

Journal of New Finance

Basel III introduced significant innovations in bank regulation. One of them is the minimum required leverage ratio. To help banks implementing the new measure , Basel III created two different core capital measures: Common Equity Tier 1 (CET1) and Additional Tier 1 (AT1). Since raising capital for CET1 is expensive, other instruments are used to build up AT1 in case of need, like for example Contingent Convertible (CoCo), which can convert to equity or written-down when a bank is under stress. In this paper we show that CoCos are not suitable as regulatory core capital instruments. Problems of timing, incentives, …

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