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Benthic-Pelagic Coupling In Eutrophic Estuaries From The Temperate And Sub-Tropical Zones: The Contrasting Roles Of Benthic Suspension-Feeding And Nutrient Loading, Charles C. Wall Aug 2010

Benthic-Pelagic Coupling In Eutrophic Estuaries From The Temperate And Sub-Tropical Zones: The Contrasting Roles Of Benthic Suspension-Feeding And Nutrient Loading, Charles C. Wall

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Coastal waters have suffered from multiple stressors that have diminished habitat value and living marine resources in estuaries. Excess nutrient loading, leading to eutrophication, has been identified as a primary driver of these changes. Some level of nutrient loading is necessary to sustain production in marine systems, but the level of appropriate nutrient loading for a given estuary or resource species is unknown. Benthic suspension feeders, such as bivalves and sponges, have the potential to buffer or mediate eutrophication through their filtration activities. Many eutrophic systems have lost suspension feeders due to overharvesting, disease, and harmful algal blooms. In a …

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Editorial, Kenneth H. Brink Jan 2010

Editorial, Kenneth H. Brink

Journal of Marine Research

With the completion of Volume 67 of the Journal of Marine Research, George Veronis is stepping down after having served as editor for 37 years. In the Journal’s 73-year history, there have been only three editors, and George has served the longest. During George’s tenure, the Journal has prospered and it has strengthened its position as one of the best oceanographic scholarly Journals. The entire oceanographic community should be grateful for George’s commitment to excellence, hard work and commitment. His accomplishments with the Journal are most impressive.

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Larval Responses To Turbulence And Temperature In A Tidal Inlet: Habitat Selection By Dispersing Gastropods?, Heidi L. Fuchs, Andrew R. Solow, Lauren S. Mullineaux Jan 2010

Larval Responses To Turbulence And Temperature In A Tidal Inlet: Habitat Selection By Dispersing Gastropods?, Heidi L. Fuchs, Andrew R. Solow, Lauren S. Mullineaux

Journal of Marine Research

Marine larval dispersal is affected by hydrodynamic transport and larval behavior, but little is known about how behavior affects large-scale patterns of dispersal and recruitment. Intertidal habitats are characterized by strong and variable turbulence relative to shelf and pelagic waters, so larval responses to turbulence may affect both dispersal and habitat selection. This study combined observations and theoretical approaches to model gastropod larval responses to multiple physical variables in a well-mixed tidal inlet. Physical measurements and larvae were collected in July 2004 in Barnstable Harbor, Massachusetts (USA). Physical measurements were incorporated in an advection-diffusion model where larval vertical velocity is …

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Oxygen Isotope Ratio, Barium And Salinity In Waters Around The North American Coast From The Pacific To The Atlantic: Implications For Freshwater Sources To The Arctic Throughflow, Michiyo Yamamoto-Kawai, Eddy C. Carmack, Fiona A. Mclaughlin, Kelly K. Falkner Jan 2010

Oxygen Isotope Ratio, Barium And Salinity In Waters Around The North American Coast From The Pacific To The Atlantic: Implications For Freshwater Sources To The Arctic Throughflow, Michiyo Yamamoto-Kawai, Eddy C. Carmack, Fiona A. Mclaughlin, Kelly K. Falkner

Journal of Marine Research

In 2002, oxygen isotope ratios of water (H218O/H216O), dissolved barium, and salinity were measured in surface waters around northern North America to identify freshwater sources and to provide a large-scale background for interpretation of regional inputs and processes. Oxygen isotope ratios showed that precipitation, river runoff, and sea ice meltwater were all significant contributors to the freshwater carried by the coastal component of the Arctic throughflow. Precipitation and runoff contributed <40% and >60%, respectively, to the freshwater found in surface waters along the Pacific coast. Sea ice meltwater contributed up to 65% to waters residing near …

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Onset Of Time-Dependence In A Double-Gyre Circulation: Barotropic Basin Modes Versus Classical Baroclinic Modes, Hristina G. Hristova, Henk A. Dijkstra, Michael A. Spall Jan 2010

Onset Of Time-Dependence In A Double-Gyre Circulation: Barotropic Basin Modes Versus Classical Baroclinic Modes, Hristina G. Hristova, Henk A. Dijkstra, Michael A. Spall

Journal of Marine Research

Using a fully-implicit high-resolution two-layer quasi-geostrophic model combined with pseudo-arclength continuation methods, we perform a bifurcation analysis of double-gyre ocean flows to study their initial oscillatory instabilities. In this model, both wind- and thermally-forced flows can be represented. We demonstrate that on the branch of anti-symmetric steady-state solutions the ratio, Ω, of the flow advective speed to the long internal Rossby wave speed determines the type of oscillatory modes to first become unstable. This is the same nondimensional parameter that controls the shape of the geostrophic contours in the linear limit of the circulation. For large values of Ω, the …

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Upwelling Limitation By Onshore Geostrophic Flow, P. Marchesiello, P. Estrade Jan 2010

Upwelling Limitation By Onshore Geostrophic Flow, P. Marchesiello, P. Estrade

Journal of Marine Research

Although coastal upwelling has now been the subject of many studies, the only available dynamical upwelling index is derived from a simple relation between upwelling intensity and alongshore winds stress. In this study, we first present a primitive equation model simulation of the New Caledonia island region to show that upwelling intensity can be limited by onshore geostrophic flow. Then, we propose a new analytical model accounting for the effect of onshore geostrophic flow on the structure of upwelling. The analytical model is shown to match remarkably well the solution of the primitive equation model. Used as an upwelling index, …

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Oxygen Penetration Around Burrows And Roots In Aquatic Sediments, F. J. R. Meysman, O. S. Galaktionov, R. N. Glud, J. J. Middelburg Jan 2010

Oxygen Penetration Around Burrows And Roots In Aquatic Sediments, F. J. R. Meysman, O. S. Galaktionov, R. N. Glud, J. J. Middelburg

Journal of Marine Research

Diffusion is the dominant physical mechanism for the transfer of oxygen into fine-grained aquatic sediments. This diffusive uptake occurs at the sediment-water interface, but also at internal interfaces, such as along ventilated burrows or O2 releasing plant roots. Here, we present a systematic model analysis of the oxygen transfer at such biological interfaces. We list the equations for the O2 distribution, the flux, the oxygen penetration distance (OPD), the oxygenated sediment volume, and the irrigational oxygen uptake (IOU) as a function of biological parameters, such as burrow/root radius and burrow/root density. We also provide a set of computational …

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Relative Displacement Probability Distribution Functions From Balloons And Drifters, J. H. Lacasce Jan 2010

Relative Displacement Probability Distribution Functions From Balloons And Drifters, J. H. Lacasce

Journal of Marine Research

The focus of relative (pair) dispersion studies in the atmosphere and ocean is often on the mean square particle separation or the Finite Scale Lyapunov Exponent. Much less attention has been paid to the probability density function (PDF) of pair separations, despite that this determines the dispersion. In two-dimensional (2-D), nondivergent, homogeneous flows, the PDF is governed by a Fokker-Planck equation. Analytical solutions exist for the turbulent inertial ranges, but these have rarely been compared to observations.We consider the analytical PDFs for the turbulent inertial ranges and derive a new solution for the 2-D energy range. We then compare the …

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George Veronis: An Appreciation, K. H. Brink, K. K. Turekian Jan 2010

George Veronis: An Appreciation, K. H. Brink, K. K. Turekian

Journal of Marine Research

George Veronis was born in New Brunswick, New Jersey on June 3, 1926, one of six accomplished children of a Greek immigrant couple. He grew up in Easton, Pennsylvania, where his talent for mathematics was recognized early on. World War II interrupted his education, however, and he enlisted in the U.S. Navy where he served aboard submarines in the Pacific Ocean. With the end of the global conflict, George entered college on the G.I. Bill and graduated with a B.S. in Mathematics from nearby Lafayette College in 1950...

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Impact Of High-Frequency Nonlinear Internal Waves On Plankton Dynamics In Massachusetts Bay, Zhigang Lai, Changsheng Chen, Robert C. Beardsley, Brian Rothschild, Rucheng Tian Jan 2010

Impact Of High-Frequency Nonlinear Internal Waves On Plankton Dynamics In Massachusetts Bay, Zhigang Lai, Changsheng Chen, Robert C. Beardsley, Brian Rothschild, Rucheng Tian

Journal of Marine Research

A simple Nutrient-Phytoplankton-Zooplankton (NPZ) model was coupled with the non-hydrostatic Finite-Volume Coastal Ocean Model (FVCOM-NH) to study the impact of high-frequency nonlinear internal waves on plankton dynamics in Massachusetts Bay (MB) during the stratified summer season. The temporal and spatial variability of phytoplankton concentration follows the vertical isopycnal displacement to the lowest order as the waves are generated by the semidiurnal tidal flow over Stellwagen Bank (SB) and propagate westward across MB. The tidally-averaged distribution of phytoplankton is characterized by three distinct zones of low subsurface concentration: (I) the western flank of Stellwagen Bank; (II) the center of Stellwagen Basin; …

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Rapid Response Of The East Australian Current To Remote Wind Forcing: The Role Of Barotropic-Baroclinic Interactions, K. L. Hill, S. R. Rintoul, P. R. Oke, K. Ridgway Jan 2010

Rapid Response Of The East Australian Current To Remote Wind Forcing: The Role Of Barotropic-Baroclinic Interactions, K. L. Hill, S. R. Rintoul, P. R. Oke, K. Ridgway

Journal of Marine Research

The strength of the East Australian Current (EAC) is observed to vary in response to changes in basin-scale winds in the South Pacific, with a time lag of three years. First mode baroclinic Rossby waves would take 10–15 years to reach the western boundary from the center of the South Pacific, so a faster mechanism is needed to explain this link. We use an ocean general circulation model forced with idealized anomalies of wind stress curl to examine the mechanism responsible for the rapid response of the EAC. A curl perturbation in the central South Pacific produces baroclinic and barotropic …

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Patchiness In Internal Tidal Beams, Hans Van Haren, Leo R. M. Maas, Theo Gerkema Jan 2010

Patchiness In Internal Tidal Beams, Hans Van Haren, Leo R. M. Maas, Theo Gerkema

Journal of Marine Research

Results are presented from measurements on internal tides and near-inertial motions, obtained using deep-towed acoustic Doppler current profilers along a single transect over the continental slope in the Bay of Biscay and, in another experiment, over a flank of Great Meteor Seamount in the Canary Basin. Each measurement lasted two days and involved repeated passage of the same track, making it possible to extract by harmonic analysis the semidiurnal (and, over Great Meteor Seamount, also the combined diurnal/near-inertial) signal. In the Bay of Biscay, the transect covered by the towing was sufficiently long to follow the internal semidiurnal tidal beam …

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The Shape Of The Main Thermocline, Revisited, Rick Salmon Jan 2010

The Shape Of The Main Thermocline, Revisited, Rick Salmon

Journal of Marine Research

Using the Monte Carlo method of statistical physics, we compute the equilibrium statistical mechanics of the shallow water equations, considered as a reduced-gravity model of the ocean's upper layer in a square ocean that spans the equator. The ensemble-averaged flow comprises a westward drift at low latitudes, associated with the poleward deepening of the main thermocline, and a more intense compensating eastward flow near the latitudes at which the layer depth vanishes. Inviscid numerical simulations with a model that exactly conserves mass, energy, and potential enstrophy support the theoretical prediction.

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The Global Oceanic Freshwater Cycle: A State-Of-The-Art Quantification, J. J. Schanze, R. W. Schmitt, L. L. Yu Jan 2010

The Global Oceanic Freshwater Cycle: A State-Of-The-Art Quantification, J. J. Schanze, R. W. Schmitt, L. L. Yu

Journal of Marine Research

The current capabilities of quantifying the oceanic freshwater cycle are shown based on new observations from satellite data and re-analysis models for evaporation and precipitation over the ocean. For this purpose, we analyze the homogeneity and internal consistency of eight evaporation and seven precipitation products. Discontinuities are found around 1987 for all datasets, attributable to the launch of a microwave imaging satellite. Based on a review of comparisons with independent data and these analyses, the Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) and the Objectively Analyzed Ocean-Atmosphere Fluxes (OAFlux) evaporation product are combined with a state-of-the-art river discharge dataset to produce a …

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Breaking Internal Waves And Turbulent Dissipation, S. A. Thorpe Jan 2010

Breaking Internal Waves And Turbulent Dissipation, S. A. Thorpe

Journal of Marine Research

We explore what might be discovered about the breaking of progressive internal waves and the consequent mixing by following some of the methodologies and techniques used to study surface wave breaking. It is suggested that breaking is most likely to occur in wave groups, where the wave field is locally amplified. In a stratified fluid of uniform buoyancy frequency, N, the breaking regions of internal wave groups extend in approximately horizontal directions. Two classes of breaking, “convective overturn” and “shear instability,” are possible in progressive internal waves propagating in uniform stratification with no mean shear. Convective overturning and associated …

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On The Variability Of Gulf Stream Transport From Seasonal To Decadal Timescales, T. Rossby, C. Flagg, K. Donohue Jan 2010

On The Variability Of Gulf Stream Transport From Seasonal To Decadal Timescales, T. Rossby, C. Flagg, K. Donohue

Journal of Marine Research

Given the Gulf Stream's central role in the North Atlantic's wind-driven and meridional overturning circulation (MOC), there is considerable interest in measuring mass and heat flux to sufficient accuracy that their variability can be quantified with some degree of confidence. Here we combine high-resolution direct measurements of upper ocean transport from the last 17 years of Oleander ADCP data with previously published estimates of baroclinic transport to examine Gulf Stream transport variability over the last 80 years just downstream of where the current separates from the U.S. east coast.By far the greatest source of variability occurs on short time scales …

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When And Why Does Bioturbation Lead To Diffusive Mixing?, Filip J. R. Meysman, Bernard P. Boudreau, Jack J. Middelburg Jan 2010

When And Why Does Bioturbation Lead To Diffusive Mixing?, Filip J. R. Meysman, Bernard P. Boudreau, Jack J. Middelburg

Journal of Marine Research

Bioturbation in aquatic sediments results from many different biological activities, inducing particle displacement over a variety of length and time scales. Despite this inherent complexity, empirical tracer studies show that bioturbational mixing is often well described by a simple diffusive model. To resolve this apparent contradiction between biological complexity and modeling simplicity, we present an investigation into the diffusive nature of bioturbation. To this end, we examine a stochastic description of bioturbation, where particle mixing is described as a sequence of random bioturbation events. Particle movement is governed by three basic variables: the direction of jumping, the jumping distance, and …

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Tides And Overtides In Long Island Sound, Diane C. Bennett, James O'Donnell, W. Frank Bohlen, Adam Houk Jan 2010

Tides And Overtides In Long Island Sound, Diane C. Bennett, James O'Donnell, W. Frank Bohlen, Adam Houk

Journal of Marine Research

Using observations obtained by acoustic Doppler profilers and coastal water level recorders, we describe the vertical and horizontal structure of the currents and sea level due to the principal tidal constituents in Long Island Sound, a shallow estuary in southern New England. As expected, the observations reveal that M2 is the dominant constituent in both sea surface and velocity at all depths and sites. We also find evidence that the vertical structure of the M2 tidal current ellipse parameters vary with the seasonal evolution of vertical stratification at some sites. By comparing our estimates of the vertical structure …

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Effect Of Nutrient Input Frequency On The Structure And Dynamics Of The Marine Pelagic Community: A Modeling Approach, D. Macias, E. Ramírez-Romero, C. M. García Jan 2010

Effect Of Nutrient Input Frequency On The Structure And Dynamics Of The Marine Pelagic Community: A Modeling Approach, D. Macias, E. Ramírez-Romero, C. M. García

Journal of Marine Research

An analysis of the induced changes in both total productivity and community structure as a consequence of different pulsed nutrient inputs has been made by using two different ecosystem modeling tools. One was a modified version of the N-based model proposed by Fasham et al. (1990) for pelagic ecosystems and the other the plankton functional type model by Vichi et al. (2007). Both models lead to higher total biomass production with a pulsed nutrient input compared to a continuous supply, affecting both phytoplankton and zooplankton. Detailed responses are, however, different among plankton groups depending on the frequency of pulsed nutrient …

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On The Coastal-Upwelling Overturning Cell, R. E. Davis Jan 2010

On The Coastal-Upwelling Overturning Cell, R. E. Davis

Journal of Marine Research

The overturning cell driven by alongshore wind and coastal upwelling off central California is examined using direct observations from four underwater gliders equipped with Acoustic Doppler Profilers. These show the onshore flow that compensates for offshore Ekman transport during the month of August 2006 to occur primarily just below the Ekman Layer so that the net offshore heat transport, and by inference the net vertical transport of nutrients, is much less than if this compensating flow occurred throughout the water column. Correlation of cross-shelf flow and wind stress is used to infer the profile of Ekman transport while glider-measured alongshore …

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Influence Of Warm Sst Anomalies Formed In The Eastern Pacific Subduction Zone On Recent El Niño Events, Dong-Kyu Lee, Peter Niiler Jan 2010

Influence Of Warm Sst Anomalies Formed In The Eastern Pacific Subduction Zone On Recent El Niño Events, Dong-Kyu Lee, Peter Niiler

Journal of Marine Research

Anomalous April–June warm surface water in the eastern Pacific convergence zone (the Great Pacific Garbage Patch) subducts and depresses the thermocline as a single waveform. This waveform propagates toward the equator much more quickly (reaching the equator in 1.5–2.5 years) than the normal transit time (5–10 years) of the meridional overturning cell. The movements of the sea-surface temperature (SST) anomalies that occurred before the 1997 and 2009 El Niños can be clearly traced to the area south of 20°N using the altimeter sea-level signals. Upon arriving near the Pacific equator, these warm water anomalies can contribute to the formation of …

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Topography, Jets, And Eddy Mixing In The Southern Ocean, Jianhua Lu, Kevin Speer Jan 2010

Topography, Jets, And Eddy Mixing In The Southern Ocean, Jianhua Lu, Kevin Speer

Journal of Marine Research

The relation between topography, and the 3D structure of patchy eddy-induced mixing in the Southern Ocean is analyzed descriptively by applying diagnostic methods to output from the Southern Ocean State Estimate. A localized cumulative probability density function method is developed to verify the use of Nakamura's (2001) mixing efficiency in the ocean. Both methods reveal enhanced eddy mixing at mid-depths. The spatial pattern of the mid-depth enhancement of eddy mixing is primarily linked to the merging of multiple jets embedded in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current over topography. We suggest that enhanced eddy mixing over topography is due to locally enhanced …

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Excitation Of Sst Anomalies In The Eastern Equatorial Pacific By Oceanic Optimal Perturbations, Florian Sévellec, Alexey V. Fedorov Jan 2010

Excitation Of Sst Anomalies In The Eastern Equatorial Pacific By Oceanic Optimal Perturbations, Florian Sévellec, Alexey V. Fedorov

Journal of Marine Research

A generalized stability analysis is used to explore the excitation of sea-surface temperature anomalies in the eastern equatorial Pacific by optimal initial perturbations in temperature and salinity within an ocean general circulation model. We find perturbations that can efficiently modify the SST of the Nino3 region with an approximately 9-month delay. The time interval between the end of March and mid-April is particularly favorable for these perturbations to cause subsequent changes in the eastern equatorial Pacific. This sensitivity is related to two critical factors: during the boreal spring Equinox the heat content of the western equatorial Pacific reaches its seasonal …

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Mixing Rates Across The Gulf Stream, Part 2: Implications For Nonlocal Parameterization Of Vertical Fluxes In The Surface Boundary Layers, R. Inoue, R. R. Harcourt, M. C. Gregg Jan 2010

Mixing Rates Across The Gulf Stream, Part 2: Implications For Nonlocal Parameterization Of Vertical Fluxes In The Surface Boundary Layers, R. Inoue, R. R. Harcourt, M. C. Gregg

Journal of Marine Research

The turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) budget of the surface mixed layer is evaluated at wintertime stations occupied in the vicinity of the strong Gulf Stream (GS) jet. The nonlocal K-profile parameterization (KPP) of vertical fluxes is combined with observed hydrography and meteorology to diagnose TKE production. This KPP-based production is averaged over the surface mixed layer and compared with corresponding averages of observed TKE dissipation rate from microstructure measurements, under assumptions of a homogeneous steady-state balance for the layer-averaged TKE budget. The KPP-based TKE production estimates exceed the mean observed boundary layer dissipation rates at occupied stations by up to …

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Landscape And Smaller-Scale Effects Of Lugworm (Arenicola Marina) Deposit Feeding On Benthic Bacterial Assemblages, Craig J. Plante Jan 2010

Landscape And Smaller-Scale Effects Of Lugworm (Arenicola Marina) Deposit Feeding On Benthic Bacterial Assemblages, Craig J. Plante

Journal of Marine Research

Objectives of this study were to (1) determine whether feeding by the lugworm, Arenicola marina, reduces abundance or alters composition of sedimentary bacterial assemblages, (2) examine recovery of “disturbed” patches of egesta, and (3) test for effects on bacterial abundance, diversity and composition at spatial scales larger than individual fecal mounds. Field comparative studies in Lubec, Maine, were conducted to test for the effects of ingestion, and manipulative experiments were done to assess rates and mechanisms of recolonization of egesta. Bacterial assemblage attributes were followed using epifluorescence microscopy and DGGE analysis of 16S rDNA. Next we examined landscape-scale effects …

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South Atlantic Mass Transports Obtained From Subsurface Float And Hydrographic Data, Regina R. Rodrigues, Mark Wimbush, D. Randolph Watts, Lewis M. Rothstein, Michel Ollitrault Jan 2010

South Atlantic Mass Transports Obtained From Subsurface Float And Hydrographic Data, Regina R. Rodrigues, Mark Wimbush, D. Randolph Watts, Lewis M. Rothstein, Michel Ollitrault

Journal of Marine Research

Mean total (barotropic + baroclinic) mass transports of the oceanic top 1000 dbar are estimated for two regions of the South Atlantic between 18°S and 47°S. These transports are obtained by using Gravest Empirical Mode (GEM) fields calculated from historical hydrography with temperature and position data from quasi-isobaric subsurface floats deployed from 1992 through 2001. The float-GEM-estimated total mass transports reveal a Brazil Current with a southward flow of 20.9 Sv at 30°S and 46 Sv at 35°S (1 Sverdrup, Sv = 106 m3 s–1). Two recirculation cells are identified in the southwest corner of the …

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To The Oceanographic Community, George Veronis Jan 2010

To The Oceanographic Community, George Veronis

Journal of Marine Research

I became Editor of the Journal of Marine Research in January of 1973 and resigned with the November, 2009 issue; although, in fact, Ken Brink essentially took over the task during the summer of 2009, when I ended up in the hospital for a period of six-months. As of this issue (Volume 68, Number 1), Ken becomes the official Editor.

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The Relation Between The Duration And Shape Of Internal Wave Groups, S. A. Thorpe Jan 2010

The Relation Between The Duration And Shape Of Internal Wave Groups, S. A. Thorpe

Journal of Marine Research

This paper discusses the effect of the shape of internal wave groups on their “duration” or “lifetime”—how long they retain their form before their component waves disperse. The methodology devised by Smith and Brulefert (2010) to study the dispersion of surface wave groups is extended to examine the dispersion of internal wave groups. To provide tangible examples, it is supposed that wave groups of ellipsoidal shape, symmetrical about a vertical plane, are generated in a uniformly stratified thermocline by moving periodic disturbances perturbing the base of an overlying mixed layer. The dispersion relation for internal waves is used to determine …

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Topographic Rectification In A Forced, Dissipative, Barotropic Ocean, K. H. Brink Jan 2010

Topographic Rectification In A Forced, Dissipative, Barotropic Ocean, K. H. Brink

Journal of Marine Research

Barotropic current rectification by topographic irregularities is treated for a case with bottom friction and fluctuating forcing. Geometries both with underlying shelf-slope topography and with no mean topographic slope are considered. In common with many previous studies of this sort, the resulting time-mean flow roughly follows isobaths in the direction that long topographic Rossby waves travel, but the mean flow often deviates locally from this rule. Further, as might be expected, there is an area-averaged correlation of pressure and bottom slope in the sense that would propel the mean flow. If the topographic irregularities have a length scale shorter than …

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Mixing Rates Across The Gulf Stream, Part 1: On The Formation Of Eighteen Degree Water, R. Inoue, M. C. Gregg, R. R. Harcourt Jan 2010

Mixing Rates Across The Gulf Stream, Part 1: On The Formation Of Eighteen Degree Water, R. Inoue, M. C. Gregg, R. R. Harcourt

Journal of Marine Research

Microstructure profiles taken in February 2007 across the Gulf Stream (GS) measured the temporal and spatial variability of the intense mixing that forms Eighteen Degree Water (EDW). Strong winds, gusting to 30 m s–1, and heat fluxes up to 1000 W m–2 produced moderate-to-strong mixing in the surface mixed layer and the entrainment zone, as well as in the thermocline. In the limit of a vertically balanced heat budget, EDW formation is driven primarily by surface heat loss to the atmosphere across a region extending O(100) km south from the GS core, where entrainment heat fluxes …

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