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Expatriation Of Xyrichtys Novacula (Pisces: Labridae) Larvae: Evidence Of Rapid Cross-Slope Exchange, Jonathan A. Hare, Robert K. Cowen
Expatriation Of Xyrichtys Novacula (Pisces: Labridae) Larvae: Evidence Of Rapid Cross-Slope Exchange, Jonathan A. Hare, Robert K. Cowen
Journal of Marine Research
Larvae of Xyrichtys novacula (Pisces: Labridae) have been collected in the Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB) hundreds of kilometers north of reported adult ranges by both the Marine Monitoring and Assessment Program (MARMAP) and by our ichthyoplankton cruises. These larvae could be from a previously unknown population north of Cape Hatteras or they could have been transported north from southern populations. In order to examine these two hypotheses both biological and physical oceanographic data were considered, including size-specific larval distribution, larval age, vertical distribution of larvae, satellite imagery of sea surface temperature, and temperature and salinity measurements. Larvae captured during our …
The Kinetics Of Organic Matter Mineralization In Anoxic Marine Sediments, David J. Burdige
The Kinetics Of Organic Matter Mineralization In Anoxic Marine Sediments, David J. Burdige
Journal of Marine Research
The kinetics of sulfate reduction and inorganic nutrient production (ΣCO2, ammonium, and phosphate) were examined in the sediments at five sites in the southern Chesapeake Bay, using long term (> 200 d) sediment decomposition experiments. Average first order rate constants for these processes (at 25°C) decreased from 8.2 to 3.7 yr–1 in the surface sediments (0–2 cm), to 2.1 to 0.2 yr–1 at 12–14 cm. The C/N and C/P ratios of the organic matter undergoing decomposition also increased with depth at these sites. Taken together, these results indicate that the reactivity of the organic matter undergoing …
Laminar Separation Of Colliding Western Boundary Currents, Paola Cessi
Laminar Separation Of Colliding Western Boundary Currents, Paola Cessi
Journal of Marine Research
A barotropic model is employed to study the dynamics of colliding jets along a western boundary. To isolate the processes at the western wall we use a regional model where two opposing jets are induced by prescribing narrow inflows at the northern and southern edges of the computational domain. The fluid is withdrawn from the domain on the eastern side.
Arrested Fronts, William K. Dewar
Arrested Fronts, William K. Dewar
Journal of Marine Research
A theory of fronts within the general circulation is discussed. These fronts and their associated jets differ from the more classical picture of boundary jets and their extensions (an example being the Gulf Stream system) in that they occur in the interior of the general circulation. The mechanism at the heart of the frontogenesis is nonlinear beta steepening, which arises from geostrophy in the presence of continuity. Such dynamics have been used in the past in a study of planetary shock waves. It is here argued that these dynamics result in stationary shock fronts in the general circulation. An equation …
Tidal Stirring And Phytoplankton Bloom Dynamics In An Estuary, James E. Cloern
Tidal Stirring And Phytoplankton Bloom Dynamics In An Estuary, James E. Cloern
Journal of Marine Research
A decade of observation in South San Francisco Bay demonstrates that estuarine phytoplankton biomass fluctuates at the time scale of days to weeks, and that much of this variability is associated with fluctuations in tidal energy. During the spring seasons of every year from 1980–1990, episodic blooms occurred in which phytoplankton biomass rose from a baseline of 2–4 mg chlorophyll a m–3, peaked at 20–40 mg chlorophyll a m–3, and then returned to baseline values, all within several weeks. Each episode of biomass increase occurred during neap tides, and each bloom decline coincided with spring tides. …
The Effect Of East River On The Barotropic Motions In Long Island Sound, Kuo-Chuin Wong
The Effect Of East River On The Barotropic Motions In Long Island Sound, Kuo-Chuin Wong
Journal of Marine Research
A linearized, frequency-dependent analytical model is developed to examine the effect of East River on the barotropic motions in Long Island Sound. At tidal frequencies, East River creates a slightly imperfect reflecting wall at the western end of Long Island Sound, resulting in moderate reduction in the resonance of the M2 tide. At subtidal frequencies the presence of East River permits a significant amount of volume exchange through the western end of Long Island Sound, causing large scale adjustments in both the amplitude and the phase of the barotropic flow well into the interior of the Sound. It appears …
A Subsurface Cyclonic Eddy In The Bay Of Bengal, M. T. Babu, Prasanna Kumar, D. P. Rao
A Subsurface Cyclonic Eddy In The Bay Of Bengal, M. T. Babu, Prasanna Kumar, D. P. Rao
Journal of Marine Research
CTD data collected from the northwestern Bay of Bengal during late July 1984 reveal the existence of a cold core subsurface eddy centered at 17°40'N and 85°19'E. The thermal structure observed across the eddy indicates that it was confined to a level well below the mixed layer, between 50 and 300 db, and that it had a diameter of about 200 km. A temperature drop of 4–5°C as compared with the surroundings was observed at the center of the eddy. A plausible mechanism for the eddy generation is baroclinic instability at the interface of two opposing boundary currents present along …
The Influence Of A Changing Bacterial Community On Trace Metal Scavenging In A Deep-Sea Particle Plume, James P. Cowen, Yuan Hui Lui
The Influence Of A Changing Bacterial Community On Trace Metal Scavenging In A Deep-Sea Particle Plume, James P. Cowen, Yuan Hui Lui
Journal of Marine Research
An extensive set of particle samples was collected from the extended (nonbuoyant) hydrothermal plume, the distal remnant plume, and the adjacent waters in a transect across the Southern Juan de Fuca Ridge. Bacterial capsules comprised the primary species of particulate Mn. However, the data also showed significant shifts in the relative abundance of distinctive subpopulations of this bacterial community, as expressed by several consistently recurring capsule morphologies. The data are discussed with respect to distance from plume origins (relative plume age), total bacterial numbers, experimentally determined scavenging rate constants and total particulate and dissolved Mn. The relative distribution of one …
Diel Migration And Feeding Patterns Of The Chaetognath, Sagitta Friderici, Off The West Coast Of South Africa, Venetia Stuart, Hans M. Verheye
Diel Migration And Feeding Patterns Of The Chaetognath, Sagitta Friderici, Off The West Coast Of South Africa, Venetia Stuart, Hans M. Verheye
Journal of Marine Research
The vertical distribution patterns of adult and juvenile Sagitta friderici were investigated over a 48 h period, using samples collected at different depth strata with an RMT 1 × 6 net. Juvenile chaetognaths were generally found at depths of less than 50 m throughout the day and night, and exhibited limited diel migration patterns. Adults, on the other hand, migrated more extensively and were generally found below 50 m during the day and scattered throughout the water column or near the surface at night. Using the mean depths at each sampling time, the migration patterns of adult chaetognaths closely followed …
Nonlinear General Circulation Of An Ocean Model Driven By Wind With A Stochastic Component, Annalisa Griffa, Sergio Castellari
Nonlinear General Circulation Of An Ocean Model Driven By Wind With A Stochastic Component, Annalisa Griffa, Sergio Castellari
Journal of Marine Research
The effects of the stochastic component of the large-scale wind on the climatological mean of the nonlinear ocean circulation are studied, using a set of numerical solutions for the single-layer, quasi-geostrophic equation in a closed basin with a flat bottom. In the absence of a steady wind, the purely stochastic wind is found to drive the solutions toward a nonlinear mean flow similar to that of the free system (i.e. without forcing and dissipation). This equilibrium mean flow (Fofonoff flow), is predicted by statistical mechanics and is characterized by a westward interior closed by inertial boundary layers along the coast. …
Micropatchiness, Turbulence And Recruitment In Plankton, Cabell S. Davis, Glenn R. Flierl, P. H. Wiebe, P. J. S. Franks
Micropatchiness, Turbulence And Recruitment In Plankton, Cabell S. Davis, Glenn R. Flierl, P. H. Wiebe, P. J. S. Franks
Journal of Marine Research
A series of models are presented which examine the relative importance of microscale patchiness and turbulence to growth and recruitment in planktonic consumers. The analyses apply over scales from centimeters to meters (e.g. from copepods to fish larvae), and we assume food-limited conditions, since, otherwise, patchiness would not affect growth. A model of individual growth response to fluctuating food is developed which shows that growth is approximately exponential and is linearly related to food concentration. A random walk model reveals that the swimming process can be approximated as a simple diffusion term which, when included in the exponential growth model, …
Similarity Solutions Of The Thermocline Equations, Rick Salmon, Rainer Hollerbach
Similarity Solutions Of The Thermocline Equations, Rick Salmon, Rainer Hollerbach
Journal of Marine Research
We apply symmetry group methods to find the group of transformations of the dependent and independent variables that leave the thermocline equations unchanged, These transformations lead to an optimal subset of sixteen forms of similarity solution, Each form obeys an equation with one fewer dependent variable than the original thermocline equations. Previously obtained similarity solutions, which are based solely upon scaling symmetries, are special cases of just three of these forms. Two of the sixteen forms lead to linear, two-dimensional, advection-diffusion equations for the temperature, Bernoulli functional or potential vorticity. Simple exact solutions contain "internal boundary layers" that resemble the …
The Effects Of Flow Disturbance By An Oceanic Island, Karen J. Heywood, Eric D. Barton, John H. Simpson
The Effects Of Flow Disturbance By An Oceanic Island, Karen J. Heywood, Eric D. Barton, John H. Simpson
Journal of Marine Research
We present CTD and ADCP surveys around the Indian Ocean coral atolls of Aldabra (46°20′E, 9°25′S) and Cosmoledo (47°30E, 9°45′S) during April–July 1987. These isolated, steep-sided islands situated in deep (4000 m) water in the South Equatorial Current provide examples of flow disturbance which are compared to laboratory studies of eddy generation by a circular cylinder in a channel. For sufficiently strong and steady flows, a doming of the isopycnals is observed in the lee of the islands. The sea-surface temperature decreases and the salinity increases as cool, saline water is mixed from below. Just as in the case of …
Δ14c Balance For The Gulf Of Maine, Long Island Sound And The Northern Middle Atlantic Bight: Evidence For The Extent Of The Antarctic Intermediate Water Contribution, N. Tanaka, M. C. Monaghan, K. K. Turekian
Δ14c Balance For The Gulf Of Maine, Long Island Sound And The Northern Middle Atlantic Bight: Evidence For The Extent Of The Antarctic Intermediate Water Contribution, N. Tanaka, M. C. Monaghan, K. K. Turekian
Journal of Marine Research
The radiocarbon signatures of the western Sargasso Sea and the atmosphere as a function of time over the past 200 years are known. These can be combined with seawater dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) radiocarbon data from the Gulf of Maine and the northern Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB), including Long Island Sound (LIS), for 1983 and pre-1955 shell analyses for radiocarbon, to set the amount of Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) required to balance the 14C budget in the northern MAB. Approximately 40% of the water entering the Middle Atlantic Bight from the north must be AAIW, the other 60% being …
Barotropic Variability In The Presence Of An Ocean Gyre, Richard J. Greatbatch, Jin Li
Barotropic Variability In The Presence Of An Ocean Gyre, Richard J. Greatbatch, Jin Li
Journal of Marine Research
We describe results from some idealized numerical calculations in which we examine the influence of a barotropically stable mean flow on wind-driven variability in a flat-bottomed barotropic vorticity equation model. The mean flow has features in common with the vertically integrated time-mean circulation found in eddy-resolving models with a Sverdrup interior, western boundary current and inertial recirculation region. We integrate the equations of motion linearized about this flow and driven by oscillating wind forcing and compare the results with those obtained when the mean state is one of rest. We find that the presence of a mean flow leads to …
The North Atlantic Current And Subarctic Intermediate Water, Michel Arhan
The North Atlantic Current And Subarctic Intermediate Water, Michel Arhan
Journal of Marine Research
The region where the North Atlantic Current crosses the ocean around 50N is studied from a watermass point of view and using the ventilated thermocline model of Luyten et al. (1983). Both approaches focus on the part played by the Subarctic Intermediate Water which, owing to its pronounced thermohaline anomalies stands out as a clue to the complex oceanic circulation in this area. Vertical mixing of this watermass with the overlying North Atlantic Central Water creates a fresher variety of central water found between the two major branches of the North Atlantic Current. Using the ventilated thermocline model several …
Optical Efficiency Factors Of Free-Living Marine Bacteria: Influence Of Bacterioplankton Upon The Optical Properties And Particulate Organic Carbon In Oceanic Waters, André Morel, Yu-Hwan Ahn
Optical Efficiency Factors Of Free-Living Marine Bacteria: Influence Of Bacterioplankton Upon The Optical Properties And Particulate Organic Carbon In Oceanic Waters, André Morel, Yu-Hwan Ahn
Journal of Marine Research
Free-living coccoid bacteria have been repeatedly isolated from the Mediterranean Sea and then cultured in detritus- and predator-free seawater, either unenriched or slightly nutrient-supplemented. The modal diameter of these cultured cells was in the 0.5 to 1 μm range. The spectral values (within the 400–750 nm λ-range) of absorption, total scattering and backscattering have been determined, together with cell enumeration, size distribution and C–N content. Because of their smallness, bacteria are amenable to simplified theoretical expressions providing their optical efficiency factors. Experimental data are in remarkable quantitative agreement with theoretical predictions. As expected, scattering is wavelength (λ−2) …
A Mechanistic View Of The Particulate Biodiffusion Coefficient: Step Lengths, Rest Periods And Transport Directions, R. A. Wheatcroft, P. A. Jumars, C. R. Smith, A. R. M. Nowell
A Mechanistic View Of The Particulate Biodiffusion Coefficient: Step Lengths, Rest Periods And Transport Directions, R. A. Wheatcroft, P. A. Jumars, C. R. Smith, A. R. M. Nowell
Journal of Marine Research
We link specific mechanisms of biogenous sediment mixing with the commonly used bioturbation coefficient (Db) that describes their bulk effects. Using an isotropic, stationary, unbiased random walk model we mechanistically decompose the particulate bioturbation coefficient into the fundamental dimensions of length and time. The result shows that Db depends directly on the square of the distance particles are moved (step length) and inversely on the elapsed time between movements (rest period). This new decomposition in terms of explicit mechanisms (i.e., animal activities), leads to scaling arguments that large, deposit feeding animals will in nearly all cases …
On The Influence Of The Continental Slope On The Western Boundary Layer: The Enhanced Transport And Recirculation, Zhengyu Liu
On The Influence Of The Continental Slope On The Western Boundary Layer: The Enhanced Transport And Recirculation, Zhengyu Liu
Journal of Marine Research
Quasi-geostrophic theory is used to study the effect of a continental slope on the Western Boundary Layer. The compression of the vortex tubes by the slope results in a strong northward boundary current called the Continental Slope Boundary Current (hereafter CSBC). On the β-plane, for a reasonably high slope, we find a strong barotropic recirculation which enhances the total transport of the Western Boundary Current significantly. The two-layer model further shows that the CSBC is trapped in the lower layer. In oceans with very deep lower layers, the CSBC transport increases dramatically. Consequently, even for a very weak lower layer …
Hydrography And Circulation Off The West Coast Of India During The Southwest Monsoon 1987, S. R. Shetye, A. D. Gouveia, S. S. C. Shenoi, D. Sundar, G. S. Michael, A. M. Almeida, K. Santanam
Hydrography And Circulation Off The West Coast Of India During The Southwest Monsoon 1987, S. R. Shetye, A. D. Gouveia, S. S. C. Shenoi, D. Sundar, G. S. Michael, A. M. Almeida, K. Santanam
Journal of Marine Research
During June–August 1987 thirteen hydrographic sections, each approximately perpendicular to the coast, covered the coastal region off western India. The southernmost section showed occurrence of upwelling, the nearshore surface temperature being about 2.5°C lower than farther offshore. There was a shallow (approximately 75 to 100 m deep) equatorward surface current, below which there were signatures of downwelling indicative of a poleward undercurrent hugging the continental slope. T-S characteristics showed that the undercurrent carried low salinity water found in the southwestern Bay of Bengal. Conditions similar to those found at this section existed up to around 15N but the intensity of …
Early Diagenesis And Recycling Of Biogenic Debris At The Seafloor, Santa Monica Basin, California, Richard A. Jahnke
Early Diagenesis And Recycling Of Biogenic Debris At The Seafloor, Santa Monica Basin, California, Richard A. Jahnke
Journal of Marine Research
Seafloor recycling of organic materials in Santa Monica Basin, California was examined through in situ benthic chamber experiments, shipboard whole-core incubations and pore water studies. Mass balance calculations indicate that the data are internally consistent and that the estimated benthic exchange rates compare well with those derived from deep, moored conical sediment traps and hydrographic modeling. Pore water and benthic flux observations indicate that the metabolizable organic matter at the seafloor must be composed of at least two fractions of very different reactivities. While the majority of reactive organic compounds degrade quickly, with a half-life of <6.5 years, ¼ of the total metabolizable organic matter appears to react more slowly, with a half-life on the order of 1700 years. Down-core changes in pore water sulfate and titration alkalinity are not explained by stoichiometric models of organic matter diagenesis and suggest that reactions not considered previously must be influencing the pore water concentrations. Measured recycling and burial rates indicate that 43% of the organic carbon reaching the basin seafloor is permanently buried. The results for Santa Monica Basin are compared to those reported for other California Borderland Basins that differ in sedimentation rate and bottom water oxygen content. Organic carbon burial rates for the Borderland Basins are strongly correlated with total organic carbon deposition rate and bulk sedimentation rate. No significant correlation is observed between carbon burial and bottom water oxygen, extent of oxic mineralization and sediment mixing. Thus, for the California Borderlands, it appears that carbon burial rates are primarily controlled by input rates and not by variations in preservation.
The Mixed-Layer Climatology In The Northwestern Part Of The North Pacific Subtropical Gyre And The Formation Area Of Subtropical Mode Wate, Toshio Suga, Kimio Hanawa
The Mixed-Layer Climatology In The Northwestern Part Of The North Pacific Subtropical Gyre And The Formation Area Of Subtropical Mode Wate, Toshio Suga, Kimio Hanawa
Journal of Marine Research
Climatological character of the mixed layer in the northwestern part of the subtropical North Pacific and the formation area of Subtropical Mode Water (STMW) are investigated using all available hydrographic data compiled by the Japan Oceanographic Data Center. Various monthly mean properties of the mixed layer averaged over 2° × 5° (lat. × lon.) rectangles are presented. In the heating season, the mixed layer is less thick throughout the region, while in the cooling season, a prominent thick mixed layer whose properties correspond with those of STMW evolves just off the Kuroshio both south and east of Japan. This probable …
The Evolution Of Salt Fingers In Inertial Wave Shear, Eric Kunze
The Evolution Of Salt Fingers In Inertial Wave Shear, Eric Kunze
Journal of Marine Research
Shadowgraph profiles collected in the thermohaline staircase east of Barbados reveal nearly-horizontal banding—unlike the vertical banding that has been observed in other fingering-favorable parts of the ocean. A plausible interpretation of this optical microstructure is that vertical shear is tilting over fingers. This paper presents a model for shear-tilting of salt fingers. The Ri = 6 inertial wave shears observed in C-SALT would tilt over and damp out square planform (kx = ky) fingers so rapidly that they could not produce significant fluxes. Vertical sheets aligned with the shear (ky = 0) would behave …
A Nitrogen-Based Model Of Plankton Dynamics In The Oceanic Mixed Layer, M. J. R. Fasham, H. W. Ducklow, S. M. Mckelvie
A Nitrogen-Based Model Of Plankton Dynamics In The Oceanic Mixed Layer, M. J. R. Fasham, H. W. Ducklow, S. M. Mckelvie
Journal of Marine Research
As a first step toward the development of coupled, basin scale models of ocean circulation and biogeochemical cycling, we present a model of the annual cycles of plankton dynamics and nitrogen cycling in the oceanic mixed layer. The model is easily modified and runs in FORTRAN on a personal computer. In our initial development and exploration of the model's behavior we have concentrated on modeling the annual cycle at Station "S" near Bermuda using seven compartments (Phytoplankton, Zooplankton, Bacteria, Nitrate, Ammonium, Dissolved organic nitrogen and Detritus). This choice of compartments and the attendant flows (fluxes or intercompartmental exchanges) permits a …
The Mesoscale Variability Of The Sea Surface Temperature: An Analytical And Numerical Mode, Patrice Klein, Bach Lien Hua
The Mesoscale Variability Of The Sea Surface Temperature: An Analytical And Numerical Mode, Patrice Klein, Bach Lien Hua
Journal of Marine Research
This study examines the emergence and evolution of a mesoscale sea surface temperature (SST) variability induced by a uniform and impulsive wind stress when an embedding quasigeostrophic (QG) flow is present. The SST variability which is triggered by the mixed-layer deepening closely resembles some characteristic properties of the QG flow, namely either the subsurface temperature or relative vorticity, depending on the amplitude of the deepening. The SST variance can have the same order of magnitude as the subsurface temperature variance. Within 10 days, the SST field, which is stirred only by the horizontal QG flow, displays a rapid spectral evolution …
Deep Western Boundary Current Variability At Cape Hatteras, Robert S. Pickart, D. Randolph Watts
Deep Western Boundary Current Variability At Cape Hatteras, Robert S. Pickart, D. Randolph Watts
Journal of Marine Research
Data from an array of inverted echo sounders and bottom current meters off Cape Hatteras, where the Gulf Stream and Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) cross each other, are analyzed to investigate the deep components of flow. While the mean flow is to the southwest with the DWBC, the observed temporal variability is dominated by energetic 40 day topographic Rossby waves. By optimally weighting the individual deep current meter measurements, the deep flow is averaged across the wavelength of the 40 day wave, thereby reducing the wave signal and revealing variations of the spatially averaged DWBC. The DWBC fluctuations are …
Physical, Chemical And Biological Structure Of A Coastal Eddy Near Cape Mendocino, Thomas L. Hayward, Arnold W. Mantyla
Physical, Chemical And Biological Structure Of A Coastal Eddy Near Cape Mendocino, Thomas L. Hayward, Arnold W. Mantyla
Journal of Marine Research
We sampled mesoscale physical, chemical and biological structure in the coastal region of northern California in May, 1987. The circulation was dominated by an equatorward-flowing coastal jet and by a set of mesoscale eddies. High-velocity flow in the core of the coastal jet was composed of low-salinity, low-nutrient water, Cyclonic coastal eddies were observed near Cape Mendocino and Pt. Arena. The Cape Mendocino eddy is examined in detail. This eddy is a common feature which was present both before and after the spring transition, suggesting a relatively weak coupling between the eddy and the local wind field.The coastal circulation strongly …
Near-Inertial And Diurnal Motions In The Trajectories Of Mixed Layer Drifters, Pierre-Marie Poulain
Near-Inertial And Diurnal Motions In The Trajectories Of Mixed Layer Drifters, Pierre-Marie Poulain
Journal of Marine Research
We analyze the near-inertial/diurnal motions in the trajectories of surface mixed layer drifters in the California Current System between 19N and 36N. The observed near-inertial or diurnal oscillations are very intermittent in time and have a time scale of about 10 inertial periods. Using a simple slab model of wind-driven inertial currents, we show that their temporal variations are related to the fluctuations in the local wind stress field. Three events of strong (20 cm s−1) near-inertial/diurnal motions are studied in detail. Two events at the diurnal frequency occur on the continental shelf. For the first, the observed …
Effects Of Large-Scale Topography On Abyssal Circulation, David N. Straub, Peter B. Rhines
Effects Of Large-Scale Topography On Abyssal Circulation, David N. Straub, Peter B. Rhines
Journal of Marine Research
Two models are employed to study the effect of topographically induced planetary islands (i.e. closed contours of potential vorticity) on the abyssal circulation of an ocean basin. The first is a steady state calculation using a 1½ layer model of the abyssal ocean forced by a uniform upwelling. Planetary geostrophic dynamics yield a characteristic equation in which the inverse potential vorticity serves as a streamfunction for the characteristic velocity field. Aside from warping the classic Stommel-Arons flow in the immediate vicinity of the planetary island, the topography introduces two new elements to the zonal flow west of the topography. The …
Some Features Of The Upwelling Off Oman, Alan J. Elliott, Graham Savidge
Some Features Of The Upwelling Off Oman, Alan J. Elliott, Graham Savidge
Journal of Marine Research
Hydrographic and ADCP data were collected in the coastal waters of Oman during the 1987 summer monsoon. The minimum surface temperatures, up to 5°C below ambient offshore values, were found close to the coast and in the vicinity of the Kuria Muria Islands. Strong surface gradients were observed near Ras al Hadd at the entrance to the Gulf of Oman where the geostrophic surface flow exceeded 1.0 m/s. The alongshore flux in the top 300 m of a region extending 100 km from the coast was estimated to be 10 × 106 m3/s. Evidence for an offshore …