Digital Commons Network^™

A Silent Enzootic Of An Orthopoxvirus In Ghana, West Africa: Evidence For Multi-Species Involvement In The Absence Of Widespread Human Disease, Mary G. Reynolds, Darin S. Carroll, Victoria A. Olson, Christine Hughes, Jack Galley, Anna Likos, Joel M. Montgomery, Richard Suu-Ire, Mubarak O. Kwasi, J. Jeffrey Root, Zach Braden, Jason Abel, Cody Clemmons, Russell Regnery, Kevin Karem, Inger K. Damon

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Human monkeypox has never been reported in Ghana, but rodents captured in forested areas of southern Ghana were the source of the monkeypox virus introduced into the United States in 2003. Subsequent to the outbreak in the United States, 204 animals were collected from two commercial trapping sites in Ghana. Animal tissues were examined for the presence of orthopoxvirus (OPXV) DNA using a real-time polymerase chain reaction, and sera were assayed for antibodies against OPXV. Animals from five genera (Cricetomys , Graphiurus , Funiscirus, and Heliosciurus ) had antibodies against OPXV, and three genera (Cricetomys , Graphiurus …

Iptakalim: A Potential Antipsychotic Drug With Novel Mechanisms?, Tao Sun, Changjiu Zhao, Gang Hu, Ming Li

Department of Psychology: Faculty Publications

Iptakalim is a novel putative adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive potassium (K_ATP) channel opener. In the brain, iptakalim is thought to act on the neuronal and astrocytic plasma membrane and/or mitochondrial K_ATP channels. Because iptakalim demonstrates an action on the regulation of dopamine and glutamate release in the forebrain regions, we examined its potential antipsychotic efficacy in several preclinical tests. First, we show that iptakalim is effective in reducing amphetamine- and phencyclidine-induced hyperlocomotion as well as selectively disrupting conditioned avoidance responding. Next, we show that combined iptakalim and amphetamine treatment produces a reduction on prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle …

Reference Place Conditioning Procedure With Cocaine: Increased Sensitivity For Measuring Associatively Motivated Choice Behavior In Rats, Carmela M. Reichel, Jamie L. Wilkinson, Rick A. Bevins

Department of Psychology: Faculty Publications

Place conditioning is widely used to study the conditioned rewarding effects of drugs. In the standard version, one reward (cocaine) is compared to no reward (saline). A modified variant of this task, “reference-conditioning” procedure, compares two potentially rewarding stimuli (high versus low cocaine dose). There has been little research on the utility of this procedure. Experiment 1 used the standard protocol with saline administered before confinement to the reference compartment of a place-conditioning chamber. On alternating days, saline, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, or 20 mg/kg cocaine was administered before confinement to the opposite compartment. In Experiments 2 and 3, reference-compartment …

Orostiff: Face-Referenced Measurement Of Perioral Stiffness In Health And Disease, Shin-Ying Chu, Steven M. Barlow, Douglas Kieweg, Jaehoon Lee

Department of Special Education and Communication Disorders: Faculty Publications

A new device and automated measurement technology known as OroSTIFF is described to characterize non-participatory perioral stiffness in healthy adults for eventual application to patients with orofacial movement disorders associated with neuromotor disease, traumatic injury, or congenital clefts of the upper lip. Previous studies of perioral biomechanics required head stabilization for extended periods of time during measurement which precluded sampling patients with involuntary body/head movements (dyskinesias), or pediatric subjects. The OroSTIFF device is face-referenced and avoids the complications associated with head-restraint. Supporting data of non-participatory perioral tissue stiffness using OroSTIFF are included from 10 male and 10 female healthy subjects. …

Behavioral Flexibility And Species Invasions: The Adaptive Flexibility Hypothesis, Timothy F. Wright, J.R. Eberhard, E.A. Hobson, Michael L. Avery, M.A. Russello

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Behavioral flexibility is an important adaptive response to changing environments for many animal species. Such plasticity may also promote the invasion of novel habitats by introduced species by providing them with the ability to expand or change their ecological niche, a longstanding idea with recent empirical support. At the individual level, flexibility may arise through innovation, in which an individual invents a new behavior, or through social learning, in which an individual adopts a behavior used by others. There is increasing evidence that the adaptive value of these two modes of learning, and the overall expression of behavioral flexibility, may …

Modeling The Economic Impact Of Feral Swine-Transmitted Foot-And- Mouth Disease: A Case Study From Missouri, Tyler Cozzens, Karen Gebhardt, Stephanie A. Shwiff, Mark W. Lutman, Kerri Pedersen, Seth Swafford

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Invasive feral swine combine a number of characteristics (e.g., high mobility, high fecundity, destructive behavior, reservoir of diseases, etc.) that make them one of the most serious wildlife threats to American agriculture. Additionally, feral swine are susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) infection and could play a significant role in spreading and maintaining FMD if it was introduced to the U.S. Outbreaks of FMD also have devastating economic impacts and cause the loss of billions of dollars to the agricultural economy. Problems associated with spread and control would be exacerbated if FMD was contracted and spread by feral swine, threatening the …

Regulatory And Policy Issues Around Nontarget Mortality And Environmental Fate Of Rodenticides, John D. Eisemann, Catherine E. Swift, Peter A. Dunlevy, William C. Pitt, Gary W. Witmer

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

One of the goals of this Symposium was to bring together agricultural and conservation users of rodenticides to discuss the impacts of rodenticides on the environment, examine the current regulatory climate governing their use, and identify ways that users can reduce or eliminate these impacts. Some of the presentations in today’s symposium highlighted specific impacts, and the preceding talk described the scenario of what can happen if an issue related to pesticide impacts ends up in the courts. The three agencies that were represented on this panel (USDA, USFWS, and EPA) have regulatory oversight and enforcement authority for the use …

Dramatic And Immediate Improvements In Insular Nesting Success For Threatened Sea Turtles And Shorebirds Following Predator Management, Richard M. Engeman, Anthony Duffiney, Sally Braem, Christina Olsen, Bernice Constantin, Parks Small, John Dunlap, J.C. Griffin

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Predation critically threatens reproductive success of sea turtles and shorebirds at many of Florida's beaches. We examined the biological and bioeconomic results of predator management on two adjacent barrier islands, Cayo Costa and North Captiva, along Florida's west coast. Both islands suffered severe nesting losses due to predation and disturbance due to raccoons, while Cayo Costa also was impacted by a large population of feral swine. In 2006, our initial year of study, neither island received predator management and no least tern production occurred on either island, and sea turtle nest predation was 74% and 60%, respectively, for Cayo Costa …

Raccoon (Procyon Lotor) Movements And Dispersal Associated With Ridges And Valleys Of Pennsylvania: Implications For Rabies Management, Robert B. Puskas, Justin W. Fischer, Craig B. Swope, Mike R. Dunbar, Robert G. Mclean, J. Jeffrey Root

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The raccoon (Procyon lotor) continues to be a prominent terrestrial rabies reservoir in the eastern United States. Describing the dispersal and movements of these animals and determining geographic features that are natural hindrances or corridors to movements could be used to assist oral rabies vaccination efforts. The landscape of the ridge-and-valley system in Pennsylvania exhibits characteristics of both natural potential hindrances and travel corridors to the movements of wildlife. The movements of 49 raccoons were monitored throughout a ridge and two adjacent valley sites to assess their movements related to these landscape features. Results suggest that few raccoons …

Site Use Of European Starlings Captured And Radio-Tagged At Texas Feedlots During Winter, H. Jeffrey Homan, A.A. Slowik, Linda B. Penry, George M. Linz, Michael J. Bodenchuk, Rickey L. Gilliland

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

We radio tagged and tracked 50 European starlings between December 2008 and January 2009 at 3 feedlots in the northern Texas Panhandle. Daily fidelity to sites of capture (home feedlots) was different among the 3 radio-tagged cohorts. Cohorts from Sites A and C were recorded at home feedlots on 48 and 59% of tracking days, respectively. The Site B cohort was at its home feedlot 95% of days. There were qualitative differences in use of home feedlots between cohorts A and C. The former were nearly obligate in their use of concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFO), whereas the latter tended …

Acute Toxicity Of Diphacinone In Northern Bobwhite: Effects On Survival And Blood Clotting, Barnett A. Rattner, Katherine E. Horak, Sarah E. Warner, John J. Johnston

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The anticoagulant rodenticide diphacinone was slightly toxic (acuteoralLD₅₀ 2014 mg/kg) to Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) in a 14-day acute toxicity trial. Precise and sensitive assays of blood clotting (prothrombin time, Russell’s Viper venom time, and thrombin clotting time) were adapted for use in quail, and this combination of assays is recommended to measure the effects of anticoagulant rodenticides. A single oral sub lethal dose of diphacinone (434mg/kg body weight) prolonged clotting time at 48 h post-dose compared to controls. At 783 mg/kg (approximate LD₀₂), clotting time was prolonged at both 24 and 48 h post-dose. …

Superabundant Food At Catfish Aquaculture Facilities Improves Body Condition In American White Pelicans, D. Tommy King, Jerold Belant, Brent Harrel, James Glahn

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Few studies have investigated the use of aquaculture-produced foods by piscivorous birds. American White Pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) were collected from four locations (two aquaculture, one riverine and one coastal) in the southeastern United States during winter and spring 1998-1999 to assess the contribution (biomass, frequency of occurrence) of aquaculture-produced foods and their effect on body condition. Pelican diets reflected opportunistic foraging across locations. Diet near catfish ponds consisted mostly of Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus). Diets along the Mississippi River had similarly high biomass of catfish, but otolith counts suggested lower use of catfish. Diets near crawfish ( …

Exclusion Fencing For Feral Hogs At White-Tailed Deer Feeders, Justin M. Rattan, Billy J. Higginbotham, David B. Long, Tyler A. Campbell

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Management programs aimed at white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) production often include the use of feeders, either to deliver supplemental feed or bait. However, much of the feed placed into deer feeders is consumed by non-target species, such as feral hogs (Sus scrofa). Our objectives were to compare three exclusion fence designs at deer feeders for their ability to restrict feral hog visitation and enable white-tailed deer visitation. Our high fence design consisted of 86 cm high graduated paneling. Our medium fence design consisted of 76 cm high, 10´10 cm paneling. Our low height design consisted of …

Experimental Exposure Of Swallow Bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) To West Nile Virus, Paul T. Oesterle, Nicole M. Nemeth, Paul Doherty, Robert Mclean, Larry Clark

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota, Vieillot) could potentially play an important role in the transmission of West Nile virus (WNV) because of its breeding ecology, reservoir competence status, and potentially high natural exposure rates. These birds nest in colonies and their nests are occupied year round by swallow bugs (Oeciacus vicarius, Hovarth), hematophagus ectoparasites that feed primarily on cliff swallows. Swallow bugs are most likely exposed to WNV while feeding on infectious blood of cliff swallows and, thus, if competent vectors, could contribute to initiation and maintenance of seasonal WNV transmission. In addition, swallow bugs remain …

What Tradition Teaches: Indigenous Knowledge Complements Western Wildlife Science, Paige M. Schmidt, Heather K. Stricker

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

In 1977, scientific surveys indicated that bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) in the Beaufort Sea were in trouble, with fewer than 1,000 individuals remaining. The International Whaling Commission took action to put a moratorium on native hunts in order to protect the species. Yet local Inuit hunters didn't see what the fuss was about. Their own estimates, gleaned from time and experience, put bowhead numbers at 7,000. The Inuits also disputed western scientists' contentions that whales couldn't swim under offshore ice and that they did not feed during migration. Researchers responded to these criticisms by developing a new survey …

Prey-Mediated Avoidance Of An Intraguild Predator By Its Intraguild Prey, Ryan R. Wilson, Terry L. Blankenship, Mevin B. Hooten, John Shivik

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Intraguild (IG) predation is an important factor influencing community structure, yet factors allowing coexistence of IG predator and IG prey are not well understood. The existence of spatial refuges for IG prey has recently been noted for their importance in allowing coexistence. However, reduction in basal prey availability might lead IG prey to leave spatial refuges for greater access to prey, leading to increased IG predation and fewer opportunities for coexistence. We determined how the availability of prey affected space-use patterns of bobcats (Lynx rufus, IG prey) in relation to coyote space-use patterns (Canis latrans, IG …

Reporting Difference For Colored Patagial Tags On Ring-Billed Gulls, Thomas W. Seamans, Scott F. Beckerman, John W. Hartmann, James A. Rader, Bradley F. Blackwell

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The possible role of tag color in mediating behaviors that could bias resighting rate has not been examined. In a study that began in 2007, we marked 725 ring-billed gulls (Larus delawarensis) with Bondcote royal blue, green, yellow, or orange patagial tags. Reports we gathered over 2 years indicated approximately a 3.4:1 bias in resighting rate toward yellow or orange tags. The observed bias is inconsistent with color-associated visibility bias or differential mortality among color-tagged breeding adults. Potential behavioral effects of tag color on individuals and conspecifics should be considered by biologists when planning marking studies.

Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Outbreak In A Captive Facility Housing White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus Virginianus), Bison (Bison Bison), Elk (Cervus Elaphus), Cattle (Bos Taurus), And Goats (Capra Hircus) In Colorado, Usa, Pauline Nol, Cecilia Kato, Will K. Reeves, Jack Rhyan, Terry R. Spraker, Thomas Gidlewski, Kurt C. Vercauteren, Mo Salman

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

An ungulate research facility in Fort Collins, Colorado, USA, experienced mortality in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) because of epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) infection from 20 August 2007 through 26 September 2007. Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) was detected by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and virus isolation from the spleen and lung tissues of two white-tailed deer. Virus neutralization tests were performed on pre- and post-outbreak sera from other species maintained in the same facility, including bison (Bison bison), elk (Cervus elaphus), domestic cattle (Bos taurus), and domestic goats (Capra hircus), …

Utility Of Livestock-Protection Dogs For Deterring Wildlife From Cattle Farms, Thomas M. Gehring, Kurt C. Vercauteren, Megan L. Provost, Anna C. Cellar

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Context. Livestock producers worldwide are negatively affected by livestock losses because of predators and wildlife transmitted diseases. In the western Great Lakes Region of the United States, this conflict has increased as grey wolf (Canis lupus) populations have recovered and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have served as a wildlife reservoir for bovine tuberculosis (Myobacterium bovis).

Aims. We conducted field experiments on cattle farms to evaluate the effectiveness of livestock-protection dogs (LPDs) for excluding wolves, coyotes (C. latrans), white-tailed deer and mesopredators from livestock pastures.

Methods. We integrated LPDs on …

Management Of Damage By Elk (Cervus Elaphus) In North America: A Review, W. David Walter, Michael J. Lavelle, Justin W. Fischer, Therese L. Johnson, Scott E. Hygnstrom, Kurt C. Vercauteren

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Abundant populations of elk (Cervus elaphus) are cherished game in many regions of the world and also cause considerable human–wildlife conflicts through depredation on agriculture and specialty crops, lack of regeneration to native ecosystems, collisions with vehicles and transmission of disease between free-ranging and farmed hoofstock. Management of elk varies, depending on current and historical agency objectives, configuration of the landscapes elk occupy, public perception, population density and behaviour of elk. Selection of the method to manage elk often requires knowledge of timing of impacts, duration relief from elk damage is desired, cost-effectiveness of management activities, tolerance of …

Laboratory Efficacy Of Chemical Repellents For Reducing Blackbird Damage In Rice And Sunflower Crops, Scott J. Werner, George M. Linz, Shelagh K. Tupper, James C. Carlson

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Nonlethal alternatives are needed to manage blackbird (Icterids) damage to rice and sunflower production in the United States. We evaluated 4 registered fungicides on rice seeds (i.e., Allegiance^® FL, Thiram 42-S, Trilex^®, and Vitavax^® 200 preplant seed treatments) and 2 foliar pesticides on sunflower seeds (Cobalt^TM insecticide and Flock Buster bird repellent) as candidate blackbird repellents. Red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) preferred untreated rice relative to rice treated with Thiram (P < 0.001) and Vitavax (P < 0.001), and untreated sunflower relative to sunflower treated with Cobalt (P < 0.001). Blackbirds preferred untreated sunflower relative to sunflower treated with Flock Buster repellent on day 1 of a 4-day preference test (P < 0.001). We observed no difference in consumption of treated versus untreated rice during the Allegiance preference test (P = 0.928), and blackbirds preferred rice treated with Trilex relative to untreated rice (P = 0.003). Although …

Assessing Potential Risk To Alligators, Alligator Mississippiensis, From Nutria Control With Zinc Phosphide Rodenticide Baits, Gary W. Witmer, John D. Eisemann, Thomas M. Primus, Jeanette R. O’Hare, Kelly R. Perry, Ruth M. Elsey, Phillip L. Trosclair Iii

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Nutria, Myocastor coypus, populations must be reduced when they cause substantial wetland damage. Control can include the rodenticide zinc phosphide, but the potential impacts to American alligators, Alligator mississippiensis, must be assessed. The mean amount of zinc phosphide per nutria found in nutria carcasses was 50 mg. Risk assessment determined that a conservative estimate for maximum exposure would be 173 mg zinc phosphide for a 28 kg alligator, or 6.2 mg/kg. Probit analysis found an LD₅₀ for alligators of 28 mg/kg. Our studies suggest that the use of zinc phosphide to manage nutria populations would pose only …

Rodent Outbreaks In North America, Gary W. Witmer, Gilbert Proulx

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Fluctuations in rodent population densities in North America are a reality. Our understanding of the factors causing such fluctuations is incomplete; therefore, it is important to monitor populations to increase our understanding of natural wildlife communities so as to avoid substantial damage to agriculture, forestry, and urban infrastructures, and to prevent rodent-borne disease transmission to humans. There is a need to establish integrated pest management programs in which monitoring, preventive cultural practices, and various control methods (mechanical, physical, biological, and chemical) are strategically coordinated to maintain rodent population densities at acceptable pest levels.

Sustained Agricitlture: The Need To Manage Rodent Damage, Gary W. Witmer, Grant R. Singleton

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The need for sustained agricultural production increases as the world's human population increases, many natural resources grow scarce, and the amount of land devoted to agriculture declines. For example, Vietnam loses 30,000 ha annually of prime lice land to urban development, yet it is the second highest exporter of rice in a world market that reached crisis levels during 2008 (Meerburg et al, 2009b), Between 1960 and 2000, the world's population doubled; in Asia alone the annual population growth until 2020 is estimated at 75 million, which is a lot of new mouths to feed (FAO, 2008). Hence, feeding …

The Ties That Bind: Soil Surveyor William Edgar Tharp And Oceanographic Cartographer Marie Tharp, Edward R. Landa

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

The link between soil science and geology is personified in the American father and daughter: soil surveyor William Edgar Tharp (1870–1959) and oceanographic cartographer Marie Tharp (1920–2006). From 1904 to 1935, W.E. Tharp mapped soils in 14 states for the US Department of Agriculture, and campaigned during the late 1920s–early 1930s to raise awareness of the high rates of soil erosion from croplands. The lifestyle of the federal soil surveyor in the United States during the early 20th century involved frequent household moves, and it played a formative role in Marie Tharp’s childhood. Her path to a career in geology …

History And Dating Of The Publication Of The Philadelphia (1822) And London (1823) Editions Of Edwin James’S Account Of An Expedition From Pittsburgh To The Rocky Mountains, Neal Woodman

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

The public record of Major Stephen H. Long’s 1819–1820 exploration of the American north-west, Account of an expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, compiled by Edwin James, contains valuable contributions regarding the natural landscapes, native peoples and wildlife of a mostly unexplored region of the American west compiled from the notes of some of America’s foremost naturalists, and it includes the first descriptions of 67 new species. The original plan was to publish the Account in Philadelphia and London simultaneously, yet these two editions differ substantially in ways that are relevant to the taxonomic contributions in the work. …

Survival Of Feral Cats, Felis Catus (Carnivora: Felidae), On Mauna Kea, Hawai‘I, Based On Tooth Cementum Lines, Raymond M. Danner, Chris Farmer, Steven C. Hess, Robert M. Stephens, Paul C. Banko

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

Feral cats (Felis catus) have spread throughout anthropogenic and insular environments of the world. They now threaten many species of native wildlife with chronic depredation. Knowledge of feral cat population dynamics is necessary to understand their ecological effects and to develop effective control strategies. However, there are few studies worldwide regarding annual or lifetime survival rates in remote systems, and none on Pacific islands. We constructed the age distribution and estimated survival of feral cats in a remote area of Hawai‘i Island using cementum lines present in lower canine teeth. Our data suggest annual cementum line formation. A …

Limiting Factors Of Five Rare Plant Species In Mesic Forests, Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park, Linda W. Pratt, Joshua R. Vandemark, Melody Euaparadorn

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

Five rare or endangered plant species native to Kīpuka Puaulu and Kīpuka Kī were studied for two years to determine their stand structure, patterns of reproductive phenology, success of fruit production, potential pollinators, greenhouse seed germination rates, presence of soil seed banks, impacts of seed-predating rats, seed predation by insects, seedling predation by Kalij pheasant (Lophura leucomelanos), and seedling survival with different treatments. Species monitored were the trees Hibiscadelphus giffardianus (hau kuahiwi), Melicope hawaiensis (manena), M. zahlbruckneri (alani), and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. dipetalum (kāwa`u), and the vine Sicyos macrophyllus (`ānunu).

Limiting factors identified for H. giffardianus were rat …

Evidence For Recent Population Bottlenecks In Northern Spotted Owls (Strix Occidentalis Caurina), W. Chris Funk, Eric D. Forsman, Matthew Johnson, Thomas D. Mullins, Susan M. Haig

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

The northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) is one of the most controversial threatened subspecies ever listed under the US Endangered Species Act. Despite protection of its remaining forest habitat, recent field studies show continued declines of northern spotted owls. One potential threat to northern spotted owls which has not yet been shown is loss of genetic variation from population bottlenecks. Bottlenecks can increase the probability of mating among related individuals, potentially causing inbreeding depression, and can decrease adaptive potential. Here we report evidence for recent bottlenecks in northern spotted owls using a large genetic dataset (352 individuals …

Status Of The California Condor (Gymnogyps Californianus) And Efforts To Achieve Its Recovery, Jeffrey R. Walters, Scott R. Derrickson, D. Michael Fry, Susan M. Haig, John M. Marzluff, Joseph M. Wunderle Jr.

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

The California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus; hereafter “condor”; Fig. 1) has long been symbolic of avian conservation in the United States. Its large size, inquisitiveness, and association with remote places make it highly charismatic, and its decline to the brink of extinction aroused a continuing public interest in its plight. By 1982, only 22 individuals remained of this species whose range once encompassed much of North America. The last wild bird was trapped and brought into captivity in 1987, which rendered the species extinct in the wild (Snyder and Snyder 1989). In the 1980s, some questioned whether viable populations …