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Support Vector Machines For Classification And Imputation, Spencer David Rogers
Support Vector Machines For Classification And Imputation, Spencer David Rogers
Theses and Dissertations
Support vector machines (SVMs) are a powerful tool for classification problems. SVMs have only been developed in the last 20 years with the availability of cheap and abundant computing power. SVMs are a non-statistical approach and make no assumptions about the distribution of the data. Here support vector machines are applied to a classic data set from the machine learning literature and the out-of-sample misclassification rates are compared to other classification methods. Finally, an algorithm for using support vector machines to address the difficulty in imputing missing categorical data is proposed and its performance is demonstrated under three different scenarios …
Racial Socialization In A Black-White Interracial Family In Virginia, Rebecca Hubbard
Racial Socialization In A Black-White Interracial Family In Virginia, Rebecca Hubbard
Theses and Dissertations
The Black-White biracial population is the largest and fastest growing subgroup of multiracial individuals in the United States. Despite substantial research literature on the positive relationship between Black racial identity and psychological wellbeing, Black-White biracial individuals are underrepresented in studies that provide evidence for this relationship. Root (1998) put forward an Ecological Metamodel of Biracial Identity, comprised of several factors related to contextual (e.g. class, regional history of race-relations, parental identity, extended family) and intra-psychic processes (e.g. social skills, coping skills). The ecological metamodel served as the theoretical framework for the current study. This study is a comprehensive investigation of …
Pattern Classification And Reconstruction For Hyperspectral Imagery, Wei Li
Pattern Classification And Reconstruction For Hyperspectral Imagery, Wei Li
Theses and Dissertations
In this dissertation, novel techniques for hyperspectral classification and signal reconstruction from random projections are presented. A classification paradigm designed to exploit the rich statistical structure of hyperspectral data is proposed. The proposed framework employs the local Fisher’s discriminant analysis to reduce the dimensionality of the data while preserving its multimodal structure, followed by a subsequent Gaussianmixture- model or support-vector-machine classifier. An extension of this framework in a kernel induced space is also studied. This classification approach employs a maximum likelihood classifier and dimensionality reduction based on a kernel local Fisher’s discriminant analysis. The technique imposes an additional constraint on …
Impact And Management Of Twospotted Spider Mite In Pre-Flowering Cotton, William Sidney Scott
Impact And Management Of Twospotted Spider Mite In Pre-Flowering Cotton, William Sidney Scott
Theses and Dissertations
Experiments were conducted to determine the impact of twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, on cotton injury and yield. Artificial infestations were initiated at the three leaf stage of cotton growth and removed after specified durations of infestation. Yields were reduced for durations of infestation 21 days or greater. In a second experiment, the interactions between twospotted spider mite, thrips, at-planting insecticides, and foliar insecticides were studied to determine their impact on cotton yields. Twospotted spider mites and thrips reduced cotton yield. In a third experiment, twospotted spider mites were released from a central point in 0.024 hectare blocks of …
Bird, Plant, And Herpetofaunal Associations In Cove Forests And Pine Plantations In Mississippi, Aaron Weston Posner
Bird, Plant, And Herpetofaunal Associations In Cove Forests And Pine Plantations In Mississippi, Aaron Weston Posner
Theses and Dissertations
I investigated plant and animal community characteristics on 14 forest stands in north central Mississippi. Study sites included 9 pine plantations, 3 streamside management zones, and 2 hardwood cove forests. I estimated relationships between faunal metrics and habitat characteristics. I measured vegetation characteristics within quadrant and nested plot designs to estimate understory, midstory, and overstory species composition and structure. I inventoried breeding birds using point count surveys and sampled herpetofauna diversity using area-constrained searches within belt transects during 2008 and 2009. I detected 39 species of birds in 2008, 43 species of birds in 2009, 11 species of amphibians, and …
Three Dimensional Elasticity Analyses For Isotropic And Orthotropic Composite Cylinders, Wenchao Wang
Three Dimensional Elasticity Analyses For Isotropic And Orthotropic Composite Cylinders, Wenchao Wang
Theses and Dissertations
The demand for using shell theories comes from its efficiency in computational and analytical cost. On another side, new materials that are orthotropic and/or anisotropic in nature are discovered and broadly used in many fields. Many advanced shell theories are developed for these new materials, particularly in the recent decades. A study about the accuracy of these shell theories is very meaningful to build confidence in them for further applications. This study requires a precise benchmark against which shell theories can be tested. This is the main research subjective in this dissertation: to build a set of solutions using the …
Studies In Applied Materials Science: Drug-Biofluid Interactions And Light-Emitting Polymer Films, Ashley Lynn Cornell
Studies In Applied Materials Science: Drug-Biofluid Interactions And Light-Emitting Polymer Films, Ashley Lynn Cornell
Theses and Dissertations
Interactions of Asthma Drugs with Artificial Saliva and Mucus. Modeling pulmonary particulate transport requires related biofluid physicochemical properties. Aims included measuring the effects of common aerosol drugs on artificial saliva and diffusivities of asthma medications in mucus. Artificial saliva solutions doped with asthma medications were characterized by pH, interfacial tension, and rheology. To measure diffusion, drug concentration was monitored by time-dependent FTIR spectra, and diffusivity obtained using Fick¡¦s second law. Measured theophylline and albuterol diffusivities were ca. 10-6 cm2/s. Surface Modification of Polymer Films with Light-Emitting Chemicals. To develop a polymer film system that changed color in response to radiation, …
Effects Of Soybean-Derived Phytoestrogens On Reproductive Tract Development In Neonatal Male And Female Pigs:, Kevin Wade Necaise
Effects Of Soybean-Derived Phytoestrogens On Reproductive Tract Development In Neonatal Male And Female Pigs:, Kevin Wade Necaise
Theses and Dissertations
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of orally administered soy-derived extracts on normal reproductive development in neonatal pigs as a model for infants on soy formula. Yorkshire-Landrace crossbred sows were randomly assigned to a lactating diet supplemented with either Novasoy 70 or without. Feed was top-dressed from d 100 of gestation until farrowing. Neonatal pigs (NPs) were weighed on post natal day (PND) six then randomly assigned to one of four treatments 1) control, 2) estradiol, 3) low, or 4) high genistein dose. This study demonstrates that oral exposure of NPs to estradiol but not genistein …
A Study Of Selection On Microsatellites In The Helianthus Annuus Transcriptome, Sreepriya Pramod
A Study Of Selection On Microsatellites In The Helianthus Annuus Transcriptome, Sreepriya Pramod
Theses and Dissertations
The ability of populations to continually respond to directional selection even after many generations instead of reaching response plateaus suggests the presence of mechanisms for rapidly generating novel adaptive variation within organismal genomes. The contributions of cis regulation are now being widely studied. This study details the contributions of one such mechanism capable of generating adaptive genetic variation through transcribed microsatellite mutation. Microsatellites are abundant in eukaryotic genomes, exhibit one of the highest known mutation rates; and mutations involve indels that are reversible. These features make them excellent candidates for generating variation in populations. This study explores the functional roles …
An Applied Investigation Of Corn-Based Distillers Dried Grains With Solubles In The Production Of Natural Fiber-Plastic Composites, Hugo Eudosio Castillo
An Applied Investigation Of Corn-Based Distillers Dried Grains With Solubles In The Production Of Natural Fiber-Plastic Composites, Hugo Eudosio Castillo
Theses and Dissertations
The main objective of this research was to examine uses for distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS), a coproduct of ethanol production plant, in the fiber-reinforced plastic composites industry. Initially the effort intended to take advantage of the DDGS components, using chemical reactions, to produce coupling agents to improve the physical properties of the composite. Four different chemicals plus water were used to convert proteins into soluble amino acids. The results were not as expected, and appeared to show an early pyrolysis of DDGS components. This may be due to regeneration of proteins when pH of solutions is neutralized. Procedures …
Biomechanical Evaluation Of Locking Compression Plate/Rod Constructs And Limited Contact-Dynamic Compression Plate/Rod Constructs In A Gap Model, Wilburn Maret Maxwell
Biomechanical Evaluation Of Locking Compression Plate/Rod Constructs And Limited Contact-Dynamic Compression Plate/Rod Constructs In A Gap Model, Wilburn Maret Maxwell
Theses and Dissertations
Fractures occur commonly in veterinary medicine and are usually the result of vehicular trauma. Traditionally, comminuted mid-diaphyseal fractures are repaired with an interlocking nail, dynamic compression plate, or combination of a bone plate with an intramedullary pin. In recent years, the locking compression plate has gained popularity in human orthopedics due to its biomechanical characteristics and stability in osteoporotic or periprosthetic bone. In addition, the plate may be applied in a percutaneous manner, thereby allowing for biological osteosynthesis. This study evaluates the combination of a locking compression plate and an intramedullary pin in a Delrin rod gap model. Modalities tested …
Response Of Listeria Monocytogenes To Bile Salts, Angela Inez Payne
Response Of Listeria Monocytogenes To Bile Salts, Angela Inez Payne
Theses and Dissertations
Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne pathogen responsible for the disease listeriosis. The infectious process depends upon survival in high bile salt conditions encountered throughout the gastrointestinal tract, including the gallbladder. However, it is not clear how bile salt resistance mechanisms are induced, especially under physiologically relevant conditions. This study sought to determine how L. monocytogenes responds to bile salts under anaerobic conditions. The study found resistance to be strain specific and not dependent upon virulence. Changes in the expressed proteome were analyzed using multidimensional protein identification technology coupled with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. A general response among virulent and …
Comparison Of Properties Of Pine Scrim Lumber Made From Modified Scrim, Weiqi Leng
Comparison Of Properties Of Pine Scrim Lumber Made From Modified Scrim, Weiqi Leng
Theses and Dissertations
In this study southern pine scrim was treated with low molecular weight melamine formaldehyde (MF), phenolic formaldehyde (PF), and furfuryl alcohol (FA) at different loadings and formed into 25-mm thick panels. Mechanical, dimensional and biological properties were evaluated. Results showed that samples treated with 5 percent MF had the highest MOE, MOR and work to maximum load values (15.3 GPa, 54.2 MPa and 25.4 KJ/m3, respectively), while those treated with 10 percent MF had the highest internal bond and edgewise toughness values of 390 kPa and 12 N•m, respectively. With respect to dimensional stability, samples treated with 20 percent FA …
Control Of Salmonella Biofilms By Essential Oils And Reduction Of Salmonella In Ground Turkey By Lauric Arginate And Carvacrol, Ademola Oladunjoye
Control Of Salmonella Biofilms By Essential Oils And Reduction Of Salmonella In Ground Turkey By Lauric Arginate And Carvacrol, Ademola Oladunjoye
Theses and Dissertations
Salmonella is often associated with retail poultry products. Our research evaluated the effect of temperature on the biofilm formation by Salmonella spp. and the efficacy of essential oils in controlling these biofilms on stainless steel surfaces. The sublethal concentrations of thyme, oregano and carvacrol at 0.006-0.012% suppressed biofilm formation by Salmonella spp. while concentrations at 0.05-0.1% reduced the biofilms of a three-strain mixture of Salmonella spp. by 7 logs. Carvacrol was evaluated in combination with lauric arginate for controlling the three-strain mixture of Salmonella spp. in ground turkey containing 1%, 7% or 15% fat. Higher concentrations of carvacrol (1%) or …
Effects Of Defoliation In Soybeans And Susceptibility Of Soybean Loopers To Reduced Risk Insecticides, Lucas Neil Owen
Effects Of Defoliation In Soybeans And Susceptibility Of Soybean Loopers To Reduced Risk Insecticides, Lucas Neil Owen
Theses and Dissertations
Insect defoliation thresholds were reevaluated to determine their effectiveness during vegetative and reproductive stages of soybean. Field experiments were planted with maturity group IV soybeans and subjected 17, 33, 66, and 100% defoliation during R3, R5, and R6 growth stages. In addition to different amounts of defoliation for each growth stage, defoliation occurring within different portions of the plant canopy was also evaluated. Results of this experiment confirmed that soybeans during R3 and R5 stages are more susceptible to yield loss at high levels (>57%) of defoliation than R6 growth stage. However, yield loss was not significantly different below …
Effects Of Different Oral Doses Of Cyclosporine On T-Lymphocyte Biomarkers Of Immunosuppression In Normal Dogs, Todd Marlow Archer
Effects Of Different Oral Doses Of Cyclosporine On T-Lymphocyte Biomarkers Of Immunosuppression In Normal Dogs, Todd Marlow Archer
Theses and Dissertations
Cyclosporine is a potent immunosuppressive agent used to treat a wide range of canine inflammatory diseases. Unfortunately, optimal dosing protocols for achieving immunosuppression with cyclosporine in dogs remain unclear, and standard methods that objectively monitor effectiveness of immunosuppression have not been established. We evaluated an already established panel of biomarkers of immunosuppression in vivo with two oral dosages of cyclosporine in seven normal dogs, a high dosage known to induce immunosuppression and a lower dosage used to treat atopy, with a washout period between the two dosages. The biomarker panel included the flow cytometric evaluation of T-lymphocyte cytokine expression (IL-2, …
Effects Of Salinity On Growth, Oxygen Consumption Rate And Ion Regulation In Two Ages Of Alligator Gar Atractosteus Spatula, Daniel Edwin Schwarz
Effects Of Salinity On Growth, Oxygen Consumption Rate And Ion Regulation In Two Ages Of Alligator Gar Atractosteus Spatula, Daniel Edwin Schwarz
Theses and Dissertations
The alligator gar Atractosteus spatula is a euryhaline fish found in the Gulf of Mexico and surrounding drainages. However, the extent of its hypo-osmotic abilities are not well understood. To determine effect of salinity on growth, metabolic rate, and osmoregulation abilities the following question was developed: when does the alligator gar have the osmoregulatory capabilities to survive in hyperosmotic environments? To answer this question, two different age groups (60 and 330 days after hatch [DAH]) of juvenile alligator gar were exposed to 4 different salinities (0, 8, 16, and 24 ppt) for a 30-day period. Specific growth rate, oxygen consumption …
Efficacy And Biodegradability Of Pentachlorophenol In Conventional And Biodiesel Amended Carriers, Saeed Keshani Langroodi
Efficacy And Biodegradability Of Pentachlorophenol In Conventional And Biodiesel Amended Carriers, Saeed Keshani Langroodi
Theses and Dissertations
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is widely used as a wood preservative for wood products. It has been proposed that a modified PCP carrier system based on a diesel/biodiesel mixture should be used in place of the conventional diesel/KB3 carrier, but there is some question as to whether or not this modified carrier system can provide the same service life for wood products treated with PCP. The main objectives of this research were to evaluate: 1) the comparative biodegradability of PCP in soil containing either diesel/KB3 or diesel/biodiesel, and 2) the comparative decay resistance of wood treated with formulations containing either diesel/KB3 or …
Development Of An Innovative Detection Technology For Escherichia Coli O157:H7, Qian Gu
Development Of An Innovative Detection Technology For Escherichia Coli O157:H7, Qian Gu
Theses and Dissertations
Escherichia coli O157:H7 detection in food is conducted mainly by DNA/PCR, immunoassay or conventional methods. However, all the methods require multiple incubation steps. Antibiotic and isolation agars were found as the main factors that lead to false-positive results. An improved rapid detection method was developed by decreasing detection time and enhancing easiness of detection without the need for any analytical instrumentation. A combination of selective ingredients and temperature was utilized to allow the growth of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in the detection. The detection method minimized the effects of the main false positive bacteria, Pseudomonas spp. and Enterobacter spp. The sensitivity, …
Diagnosis And Characterization Of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus, Lifang Yan
Diagnosis And Characterization Of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus, Lifang Yan
Theses and Dissertations
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is an important viral pathogen affecting all ages of cattle, resulting in significant economic losses worldwide. BVDV infection is associated with a diverse array of symptoms including gastrointestinal disorder, respiratory distress, fetal malformation, stillbirth, abortions, and mucosal disease (MD). Transplacental infections of fetuses between 42 and 125 days of gestation can result in immune-tolerance and the surviving fetuses become persistently infected (PI). PI animals are major reservoir of BVDV and it becomes problematic to control the disease. The objectives of this dissertation were to: 1) develop a cost-effective testing scheme to detect BVDV PI animals …
Cow-Calf Operations In The Southeastern United States: An Analysis Of Farm Characteristics And Production Risks, Tracey Scott Adkins
Cow-Calf Operations In The Southeastern United States: An Analysis Of Farm Characteristics And Production Risks, Tracey Scott Adkins
Theses and Dissertations
Beef cattle production in the southeastern United States differs in size, practice, and production type from other U.S. regions. Smaller, cow-calf type operations dominate in this region because the climate, forage availability, and other land use practices of farmers make this type of cattle operation more ideal for the Southeast. This research summarizes the current practices and characteristics that define the Southeastern cow-calf operation of today’s market and operating environment; it also examines the factors that influence the variability of beef production in these operations. Results indicate the following major points: 1.) 53.0% of respondents with commercial cows have fewer …
Crop Stress Detection And Classification Using Hyperspectral Remote Sensing, J Trenton Irby
Crop Stress Detection And Classification Using Hyperspectral Remote Sensing, J Trenton Irby
Theses and Dissertations
Agricultural production has observed many changes in technology over the last 20 years. Producers are able to utilize technologies such as site-specific applicators and remotely sensed data to assist with decision making for best management practices which can improve crop production and provide protection to the environment. It is known that plant stress can interfere with photosynthetic reactions within the plant and/or the physical structure of the plant. Common types of stress associated with agricultural crops include herbicide induced stress, nutrient stress, and drought stress from lack of water. Herbicide induced crop stress is not a new problem. However, with …
Cultivation Of Oleaginous Microorganism Consortium On Municipal Wastewater For The Production Of Lipids, Jacqueline Isonhood Hall
Cultivation Of Oleaginous Microorganism Consortium On Municipal Wastewater For The Production Of Lipids, Jacqueline Isonhood Hall
Theses and Dissertations
Alternative fuels are necessary to meet the increasing demands for fuels. Alternative fuels such as biodiesel are produced using vegetable oils, which are prominentt in the food industry. An alternate feedstock could be oil-producing microorganisms. These oleaginous microorganisms are defined as accumulating more than 20% of their weight in oil as lipids. Cultivating these microorganisms for oil production is not economical due to the high production costs from the sugars in the culture medium. Municipal wastewater could be a potential growth medium that has not previously been considered for cultivating oleaginous microorganisms. However, municipal wastewater contains a low concentration of …
Decellularized Porcine Myocardium As A Scaffold For Cardiac Tissue Engineering, Bo Wang
Decellularized Porcine Myocardium As A Scaffold For Cardiac Tissue Engineering, Bo Wang
Theses and Dissertations
Myocardial infarction (MI) and heart failure are leading causes of mortality globally. Recently, cardiac tissue engineering has become an attractive option for MI treatment due to the following advantages: it might provide optimal tissue performance maintained by viable transplanted cells, and might also stimulate the formation of vasculature supplying oxygen and nutrients in the patched region. However, fabrication of a thick viable cardiac patch with 3D scaffolds that are thoroughly recellularized with desired cells remains a challenge. We hypothesize that the decellularized porcine myocardium scaffold can preserve natural extracellular matrix (ECM) structure, cardiomyocyte lacunae, mechanical properties, and vasculature templates that …
Description Of Spatial And Temporal Water Quality And Nitrogen Dynamics In A Split-Pond Aquaculture System, Andrew William Mcdonnell
Description Of Spatial And Temporal Water Quality And Nitrogen Dynamics In A Split-Pond Aquaculture System, Andrew William Mcdonnell
Theses and Dissertations
Production limits have been maximized in earthen pond (EP) aquaculture. Pond design innovations may increase limits of catfish production by enhancing nitrogen processes. The split-pond system (SPS) partitions a pond into fish (20%) and waste treatment/oxygen production compartments (80%). In 2010, an SPS and EP were stocked (March) and harvested (October) with 25,000 catfish ha-1. Water quality (DO, pH, temp, ORP, CHL-a), nitrogen dynamics (TN, TAN, NO2-, NO3-), nitrogen pathway estimation, and nitrogen budgets were compared. In the waste treatment compartment, maximum DO concentrations exceeded 40 mg L-1, whereas ORP values provided favorable denitrification conditions. October EP NO2- concentrations were …
Enhancement And Evaluation Of A Rainfall-Runoff Single Event Model, Germania Salazar Mejia
Enhancement And Evaluation Of A Rainfall-Runoff Single Event Model, Germania Salazar Mejia
Theses and Dissertations
Planning and design of stormwater facilities (including best management practices and low impact development) involve the calculation of peak flows and runoff volumes. Rainfall-runoff models are frequently utilized to estimate this information. A userriendly rainfall-runoff tool (LIDIA) was developed using Visual Basic for Applications in Microsoft Office Excel. This research showed comprehensive guidelines on how to setup a model in LIDIA and reported the first evaluation of LIDIA using field data. LIDIA hydrologic module was tested using 10-minute rainfall, land cover, soil series, land cover management, and runoff data from two small watersheds in North Mississippi. Eleven storm events, over …
Evaluating A Vegetated Filter Strip In An Agricultural Field, Alina Fay Young
Evaluating A Vegetated Filter Strip In An Agricultural Field, Alina Fay Young
Theses and Dissertations
The use of best management practices has become common in recent years, leading to the need for hydrologic models to predict their behavior and effectiveness. A vegetated filter strip at Mississippi State University was used to test two models: the Hydrologic Simulation Program-FORTRAN Best Management Practices Editor (HSPF BMPrac) and the System for Urban Stormwater Treatment and Analysis Integration (SUSTAIN). Water samples were taken during the Spring of 2011 and tested for sediments and nutrients; HSPF was used for computing flows, sediments, and nutrients. The filter strip was not effective at pollutant removal with removal efficiency rates of 68.1, 91.7, …
Evaluating The Mechanism Of Oxalate Synthesis Of Fibroporia Radiculosa Isolates Adapting To Copper-Tolerance, Katie Marie Jenkins
Evaluating The Mechanism Of Oxalate Synthesis Of Fibroporia Radiculosa Isolates Adapting To Copper-Tolerance, Katie Marie Jenkins
Theses and Dissertations
Four Fibroporia radiculosa isolates undergoing decay of untreated and 1.2% ammoniacal copper citrate treated wood were evaluated for differential expression of citrate synthase (CS), isocitrate lyase (ICL), glyoxylate dehydrogenase (GLOXDH), succinate/fumarate antiporter (ANTI), and a copper resistance-associated ATPase pump (ATPase). Samples were analyzed at 2, 4, 6, and 8 weeks for oxalate and protein production, enzyme activities, and gene expression. ATPase pump expression was increased in the presence of copper when initial oxalate concentrations were low, suggesting it functions in helping the fungus adapt to the copper-rich environment by pumping toxic copper ions out of the cell. A connection in …
Investigation Of A Possible Association Between Pon1 Polymorphisms L55m And Q192r With Coronary Artery Disease And Type 2 Diabetes Patients Within A Southern Population, Chiquita Yvette Mcdaniel
Investigation Of A Possible Association Between Pon1 Polymorphisms L55m And Q192r With Coronary Artery Disease And Type 2 Diabetes Patients Within A Southern Population, Chiquita Yvette Mcdaniel
Theses and Dissertations
Mississippi has a very high prevalence of coronary artery disease (CAD) and type 2 diabetes (T2D), especially among African Americans compared to Caucasians. This project determined the L55M genotypes of paraoxonase 1 (PON1) in 187 people and evaluated associations of PON1 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), Q192R and L55M, with CAD and T2D in a Mississippian (southern) population. Significant associations were found with PON1 SNPs and race: genotypes LL, LM, QR, and RR showed significant associations with race (p values 0.0000955, 0.0024, 0.00001244, and 0.00001676, respectively), and combined genotypes LMQQ and LMRR were significantly associated with race (p values = 0.0001013 …
Island Karst Classification: Spatial Modeling-Oriented Approach With Multispectral Satellite Imageries, Hung Chak Ho
Island Karst Classification: Spatial Modeling-Oriented Approach With Multispectral Satellite Imageries, Hung Chak Ho
Theses and Dissertations
This project developed a series of spatial models to classify the island karst landforms and predict the island karst feature distribution. Spatial models with unsupervised classified images, and fuzzy-based spatial models were used in this study. Forecasting verification and spatial regressions were used to validate the models. The case study was conducted on San Salvador Island, the Bahamas, a recognized carbonate island with island karst features. Fieldwork data on banana holes on the island were used for model validation. The results showed that most models had accuracy higher than 90%, and were statistically proved that they could be used as …