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Development Of Biosensor Materials For Sensitive Detection Of Viral Rna And Foodborne Pathogen, Seon-Ah Jin
Development Of Biosensor Materials For Sensitive Detection Of Viral Rna And Foodborne Pathogen, Seon-Ah Jin
Open Access Dissertations
Pathogen detection for clinical diagnosis, vector surveillance and control is one of the important issues for public health and safety. Biosensing is considered as one of the promising techniques for pathogen detection due to its potential for rapid, simple, and relatively inexpensive detection. However, many biosensors still have limitations for commercialization. Development of materials and new detection methods are the ways to overcome these limitations [1, 2]. This study aims to develop rapid and sensitive material platforms for detection of the dengue viral RNA (Chapter 2 and 3) and the foodborne pathogen Escherichia coli O157:H7 (Chapter 4). Two different materials …
Rheological Behavior And Manufacturing Simulation Of Prepreg Platelet Molding Systems, Anthony J. Favaloro
Rheological Behavior And Manufacturing Simulation Of Prepreg Platelet Molding Systems, Anthony J. Favaloro
Open Access Dissertations
Molding systems formed by cutting and slitting prepreg composite tape into the form of platelets have been shown to be beneficial in producing parts with moderate performance with moderate processing characteristics. However, the platelets forming the molding system are typically quite large compared to typical part thicknesses. Therefore, a challenge of scales exists in platelet molding systems that is absent in traditionally considered well dispersed fiber molding systems used in injection molding. In this dissertation, we consider the specific problem of determining the final orientation state of parts manufactured in compression molding from platelet molding systems along with identifying parameters …
Investigating The Role Of Induced Acinar Specific Transcription Factors In Pancreatic Tumor Cells And Their Target Gene Effects On Tumorgenic Development, Brad L. Jakubison
Investigating The Role Of Induced Acinar Specific Transcription Factors In Pancreatic Tumor Cells And Their Target Gene Effects On Tumorgenic Development, Brad L. Jakubison
Open Access Dissertations
Pancreatic acinar cells synthesize and secrete prodigestive enzymes into the primary pancreatic duct where they traverse to the duodenum to continue the process to digestion. Due to the stress of constantly synthesizing large quantities of digestive enzymes, acinar cells must be well-equipped to address high protein production demands. The transcription factors (TFs), MIST1, PTF1a and E47, are required to maintain the pancreatic secretory homeostasis. All three are basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) TFs which are required for the function of the pancreas. Specifically, MIST1 promotes cell polarity, cell communication, and regulated exocytosis. PTF1a dimerizes with E47, and this protein complex is required …
Investigating The Crystallization Propensity Of Structurally Similar Organic Molecules From Amorphous State, Arjun Kalra
Investigating The Crystallization Propensity Of Structurally Similar Organic Molecules From Amorphous State, Arjun Kalra
Open Access Dissertations
Combinatorial chemistry and high-throughput screening approaches utilized during drug discovery have resulted in many potent pharmacologically active molecules with low aqueous solubility and consequently poor bioavailability. Enabling technologies, such as amorphous solid dispersions (ASD’s), can obviate these challenges and provide an efficient route to formulate the drug as an oral solid dosage form. However, high-energy amorphous materials have an inherent tendency to crystallize and in doing so can negate the apparent solubility advantage achieved by using such formulations. Crystallization can occur during (1) cooling the drug molecule from the melt state (such as during hot melt extrusion); (2) during storage …
Hyperspectral Image Reconstruction From Rgb Data And Its Biomedical Applications, Tae Hoon Kim
Hyperspectral Image Reconstruction From Rgb Data And Its Biomedical Applications, Tae Hoon Kim
Open Access Dissertations
Noninvasive label-free hyperspectral imaging of physiological changes in biological systems has been extensively used as invaluable tools in a variety of research areas, including medical and biological applications. However, conventional approach requires a critical, yet bulky, expensive, and slow optical component (i.e. a mechanical filter wheel, an imaging spectrograph, or a liquid crystal tunable filter) for capturing full spectral information. Therefore, this component limits development of compact, rapid, and cost-effective systems. In this respect, we propose to explore a possibility of spectrometerless (or spectrometer-free) hyperspectral imaging to map out detailed spatial distributions of biochemical absorption compounds or pigments, which are …
Exploring Transformative Learning Pedagogies To Teach Human-Centered Design: A Collaborative Action Research Approach, Cole Hatfield Joslyn
Exploring Transformative Learning Pedagogies To Teach Human-Centered Design: A Collaborative Action Research Approach, Cole Hatfield Joslyn
Open Access Dissertations
In this research, I present the problem that a culture of disengagement endemic in engineering and engineering education (see Cech, 2014) is exacerbated by deeply rooted habits of mind and their underlying assumptions that are at odds with social justice ideals and resistant to change, thus, perpetuating the status quo (see Riley, 2008). Furthermore, current engineering education curricula focusing primarily on mathematics, science, and engineering sciences (see Sheppard, Macatangay, Colby, & Sullivan, 2009) further entrench this culture along with these habits of mind and assumptions. In an attempt to address the culture of disengagement, I propose a framework for humanizing …
Engineering Play: Exploring Associations With Executive Function, Mathematical Ability, And Spatial Ability In Preschool, Zachary Samuel Gold
Engineering Play: Exploring Associations With Executive Function, Mathematical Ability, And Spatial Ability In Preschool, Zachary Samuel Gold
Open Access Dissertations
Engineering play is a new perspective on preschool education that views constructive play as an engineering design process that parallels the way engineers think and work when they develop engineered solutions to human problems (Bairaktarova, Evangelou, Bagiati, & Brophy, 2011). Early research from this perspective supports its use in framing play as a key learning context. However, no research to date has examined associations between engineering play and other factors linked with early school success, such as executive function, mathematical ability, and spatial ability. Additionally, more research is needed to further validate a new engineering play observational measure. This study …
Contract Design In Inter-Organizational Relationships: Evidence From The U.S. Franchise Systems, Shiau-Ling Guo
Contract Design In Inter-Organizational Relationships: Evidence From The U.S. Franchise Systems, Shiau-Ling Guo
Open Access Dissertations
This dissertation develops three essays about contract design in interfirm partnerships. Specifically, I develop the first essay, drawing on an asymmetric view of transactions, to understand the effects of asymmetric exchange hazards borne by different parties on contract design at a dyadic level. In the second essay, drawing from the logic of transaction cost economics and research on the “shadow of the future,” I develop hypotheses regarding the interplay between a firm’s transaction-specific factors and the predetermined contract duration that affect the need for complex dispute resolution provisions. In the third essay, going beyond the economic theoretical explanations regarding incentive …
Equalization Techniques For Cmos Optical Receivers With Integrated Silicon Photodiode, Bong Chan Kim
Equalization Techniques For Cmos Optical Receivers With Integrated Silicon Photodiode, Bong Chan Kim
Open Access Dissertations
Optical links are progressively penetrating into short-range communication applications largely due to the advancement in silicon (Si) photonics technology. Si photonics provide a small footprint and cost-effective solutions. However, improving the speed of the photodiode remains as one of the biggest challenges in Si photonics. In this thesis, we present a finite impulse response (FIR) filter based on segmented photodiodes for Si photodiode equalization. The photodiode-based FIR filter utilizes the segmented photodiodes which serve as current sources and capacitors, and realizes a high-pass FIR that partially compensates for the frequency-dependent gain loss due to the physical and the electrical bandwidths …
Reciprocal Relationships Between Parental Psychological Aggression And Adolescent Behavioral Problems, Yoonyoung Kwak
Reciprocal Relationships Between Parental Psychological Aggression And Adolescent Behavioral Problems, Yoonyoung Kwak
Open Access Dissertations
An extensive body of research has shown that parents’ harsh parenting and children’s behavioral problems are bidirectionally associated. These findings are in line with the transactional process theoretical model. Parental psychological aggression (PPA) is a nonphysical type of harsh parenting that is more prevalent among adolescents than corporal punishment and has rarely been tested for bidirectional relationships with diverse behavioral problems. This dissertation includes an investigation of the bidirectional relationship between PPA and four adolescent behavioral problems (delinquency, alcohol use, smoking, and running away) separately using samples from two different cultural contexts. The first sample is 591 adolescents who had …
Design Of Microstructured Conducting Polymer Films For Enhanced Trace Explosives Detection, Jennifer S. Laster
Design Of Microstructured Conducting Polymer Films For Enhanced Trace Explosives Detection, Jennifer S. Laster
Open Access Dissertations
The detection of trace amounts of explosive material is critical to national security. Ion mobility spectrometer (IMS)-based contact sampling continues to be a common method employed for the detection of explosives in high security checkpoint applications, such as airport security. In this process a surface of interest, such as a passenger’s hands or luggage, is probed by a swab or particle trap to collect and transfer residue to an IMS for analysis. The collection of residue on a sampling swab has been shown to be a limiting step in this detection process. As such, there is significant need to develop …
Probabilistic-Based Modeling Of Human Perceptual-Motor Behaviors With Application To Wheelchair Targeting Locomotion, Chih-Wei Li
Probabilistic-Based Modeling Of Human Perceptual-Motor Behaviors With Application To Wheelchair Targeting Locomotion, Chih-Wei Li
Open Access Dissertations
The objective of this thesis is to develop an empirically-based probabilistic model of the perception-action behaviors of human wheelchair locomotion and navigation over short distance ranges relevant for small space scenarios. More specifically, a probabilistic description and model is sought for the visual perception of distance and orientation with respect to objects, and for wheelchair locomotion based upon straight line and turning behaviors. Further, the specific behavior of manual wheelchair users boarding a small platform area, relevant for lifts and small elevators, is studied experimentally and in a probabilistic-based simulation. The approach taken consists of two parts. First, human subject …
Imaging Cholesterol Metabolism And Trafficking By Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy, Hyeon Jeong Lee
Imaging Cholesterol Metabolism And Trafficking By Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy, Hyeon Jeong Lee
Open Access Dissertations
Cholesterol is an essential component of mammalian cells which is tightly regulated. However, our understanding of cholesterol transport and metabolism is still incomplete, partly due to lack of suitable tools for studying cholesterol dynamics in living cells and organisms with spatio-temporal information. My dissertation work applied spectroscopic imaging of cholesterol in human tissues, living cells, and model organisms to unravel new insights of cholesterol metabolism and trafficking. Using stimulated Raman spectroscopic analysis of lipid droplets in human prostate cancer patient tissues, we observed an aberrant accumulation of cholesteryl ester in metastatic lesions. Inhibition of cholesterol esterification in prostate cancer cells …
Exploring The Genomic Basis Of Traits Relevant To Evolution And Ecology Of Chestnuts (Castanea) Using High-Throughput Dna Sequencing And Bioinformatics., Nicholas R. Labonte
Exploring The Genomic Basis Of Traits Relevant To Evolution And Ecology Of Chestnuts (Castanea) Using High-Throughput Dna Sequencing And Bioinformatics., Nicholas R. Labonte
Open Access Dissertations
Introduced pests and pathogens have devastated forest ecosystems in the temperate zone; in eastern North America, introduced pests and pathogens have led to the elimination of most mature elms (Ulmus), ashes (Fraxinus), hemlocks (Tsuga) and chestnuts (Castanea) over large areas where these genera were formerly abundant and important for local ecosystems. The restoration of species affected by introduced pests and pathogens requires the development and propagation of trees that possess heritable resistance. High-throughput DNA sequencing and genomics provide opportunities for researchers to identify resistance gene candidates, screen germplasm, and develop markers for marker-assisted selection in breeding programs, with the goal …
Digestibility Of Calcium In Feed Ingredients And Digestible Calcium Requirements For Pigs, Fengrui Zhang
Digestibility Of Calcium In Feed Ingredients And Digestible Calcium Requirements For Pigs, Fengrui Zhang
Open Access Dissertations
The objective of this research was to compare different expressions for the digestibility of Ca in both pigs and chickens, and to determine the true total tract digestible (TTTD) Ca requirement for 10- to 20-kg and 20- to 40-kg pigs. In the first study, two experiments were conducted to compare apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of Ca in pigs. In Exp. 1, three semi-purified diets with soybean meal, canola meal or sunflower meal as the sole source of Ca were formulated. Eighteen cannulated pigs (initial BW = 66 ± 5 kg) were assigned in a …
A Study Of Singularities In Drops And Bubbles Under The Influence Of Non- Newtonian Surface And Bulk Rheology, Pritish M. Kamat
A Study Of Singularities In Drops And Bubbles Under The Influence Of Non- Newtonian Surface And Bulk Rheology, Pritish M. Kamat
Open Access Dissertations
Fluid-fluid interfaces are incredibly complex physical structures. Imbued with an excess energy—or in mechanical terms, a surface tension σ—these interfaces are considerably influential at small scales of droplets and bubbles, and in these systems, they are responsible for a plethora of beautiful and dramatically complex phenomena. The study of these interfacial phenomena, the so-called ‘free surface flows’, lends itself to a variety of applications which are at once, as mundane as liquid dripping from a faucet or rain splashing over the windscreen of a car, and at the same time extremely useful in industry and scientific analysis – some examples …
Developing And Testing A K-12 Engineering Epistemic Frame To Uncover Engineering In The Interactions Of A High School Summer Session, Tamecia Raishuan Jones
Developing And Testing A K-12 Engineering Epistemic Frame To Uncover Engineering In The Interactions Of A High School Summer Session, Tamecia Raishuan Jones
Open Access Dissertations
Educational reform has expanded K-12 standards to include engineering. Not only will K-12 teachers have to be trained to teach engineering concepts, but assessments must evolve to reflect the various aspects of engineering. Engineering as a profession is expressed via multiple dimensions of an epistemic frame, such as skills, knowledge, identity, values, and epistemology, but many of these elements are not measured in K-12 formal and informal spaces. In a summer session of a college preparatory program, a research project revealed that although students had design journals, storyboards, and traditional assessments, the in situ video recordings captured decisions, evolution of …
Remote Sensing Of Soil Moisture With Signals Of Opportunity (Soop), Yao-Cheng Lin
Remote Sensing Of Soil Moisture With Signals Of Opportunity (Soop), Yao-Cheng Lin
Open Access Dissertations
The measurement of soil moisture is essential for studying the hydrological cycle. Passive microwave radiometry is the most mature technology for the remote sensing of soil moisture, as demonstrated on ESAs Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) satellite and the Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) mission from NASA. Global Navigation Satellite System-Reflectometry (GNSS-R) has been demonstrated as an alternative approach to the remote sensing of soil moisture, through several airborne and ground-based experiments. All of these systems operate in L-band (1575.42 MHz for GNSS) which has a penetration depth in soil of only a few cm. GNSS signals are also …
Data Classification For L-Diversity, Koray Mancuhan
Data Classification For L-Diversity, Koray Mancuhan
Open Access Dissertations
Corporations are retaining ever-larger corpuses of personal data; the frequency of breaches and corresponding privacy impact has been rising accordingly. One way to mitigate this risk is through use of anonymized data, limiting the exposure of individual data to only where it is absolutely needed. This would seem particularly appropriate for data mining, where the goal is generalizable knowledge rather than data on specific individuals. In practice, corporate data miners often insist on original data, for fear that they might miss something with anonymized or differentially private approaches. This dissertation provides both empirical and theoretical justifications for the use of …
Exploring The Relationship Between Childhood Maltreatment And Adolescent Substance Use: Mediating Effects Of Family And Peer Relationships, Alexandra C. Marin
Exploring The Relationship Between Childhood Maltreatment And Adolescent Substance Use: Mediating Effects Of Family And Peer Relationships, Alexandra C. Marin
Open Access Dissertations
Child maltreatment is a key risk factor for maladaptive behaviors throughout the life course, including substance use. Although the effects of maltreatment on several domains of functioning have been thoroughly documented in past literature, the social mechanisms through which maltreatment affects individual trajectories have received considerably less attention, especially in relation to the contribution of different maltreatment dimensions (such as subtype, timing, and severity). Examining these dimensions and social mechanisms could hold the key to answering the question of why some maltreated children experience long-spanning negative developmental outcomes, while others maintain resiliency and are seemingly unaffected by these experiences. In …
Radical Manifest Destiny: Mapping Power Over Urban Green Space In The Age Of Protest, 1968-1988, Kera N. Lovell
Radical Manifest Destiny: Mapping Power Over Urban Green Space In The Age Of Protest, 1968-1988, Kera N. Lovell
Open Access Dissertations
My dissertation traces how conflicts concerning power over green space in the urban realm sparked a pattern of insurgent park creation as a form of political placemaking in the late Cold War era. While urban and environmental historians and spatial studies scholars have illuminated how cities became the context of political disputes over power and space in the twentieth century, my work sheds light on radical, community-driven environmental design as a method of protest between the late 1960s and late 1980s. While focused on a handful of central case studies across the U.S., my work situates them within a disconnected …
Multifaceted Inorganic Chemistry: Metal Oxide Materials For Use In Oxidation Catalysis & The Synthesis And Photophysics Of Macrocyclic Transition Metal-Alkynyl Complexes, Eileen Caroline Judkins
Multifaceted Inorganic Chemistry: Metal Oxide Materials For Use In Oxidation Catalysis & The Synthesis And Photophysics Of Macrocyclic Transition Metal-Alkynyl Complexes, Eileen Caroline Judkins
Open Access Dissertations
The first chapter focuses on the synthesis and characterization of four new Cr(III)-bisalkynyl complexes bearing the macrocyclic tetraaza ligand DMC (DMC = 5,12-dimethyl-1,4,8,11- tetraazacyclotetradecane). The complexes trans-[Cr(DMC)(C2R)2]X (R = Ph ([1.1]X), Fc ([1.2]X), X = Cl, ClO4; C2H ([1.3]X′); X′ = ClO4, BPh4) and cis-[Cr(DMC)(C4TMS)2]Cl ([1.4]Cl) were studied using UV-vis and FT-IR spectroscopies, and their identities were verified with ESI-MS and elemental analysis. The three trans-complexes, [1.1]Cl, [1.2](ClO4), and [1.3](BPh4), were structurally characterized using single crystal X-ray diffraction, which revealed a pseudooctahedral geometry around the Cr center with the nitrogen atoms occupying the equatorial plane and the alkynyl ligands residing …
Biophysics Of Dna Based Nanosystems Probed By Optical Nanoscopy, Jing Pan
Biophysics Of Dna Based Nanosystems Probed By Optical Nanoscopy, Jing Pan
Open Access Dissertations
A dynamic DNA nanosystem exploits the programmable structure and energy landscape of DNA self-assembly to encode designed processes in a fuctuating molecular environment. One type of such a dynamic system, DNA walker, is reminiscent of biological motor proteins that convert chemical energy into mechanical translocation. Typical DNA walker travels tens of nanometers at a speed orders of magnitude slower than motor proteins. Two major challenges limited the development of functional DNA walkers. First, there are no suitable characterization methods that o˙er adequate spatial and temporal resolution to extract walker kinetics. Second, no guidelines have been established for the design and …
It Was A Time Of Confusion: Managing Uncertainty In A New, Competency-Based Polytechnic Program, Kurtis D. Miller
It Was A Time Of Confusion: Managing Uncertainty In A New, Competency-Based Polytechnic Program, Kurtis D. Miller
Open Access Dissertations
Higher education in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) faces a number of challenges. There are many calls for STEM education to make significant changes moving forward, including calls for competency-based learning and greater integration of the humanities. These efforts require systemic change (Reigeluth & Garfinkle, 1994). Systemic change has significant impacts on students, teachers, and other organizational stakeholders. The challenges of systemic change create significant uncertainty and experiences of uncertainty can interact in a number of ways. Communication as a field is well positioned to speak to how many of these challenges can be avoided and/or avoided. Communication theories …
The Effects Of Air-Cooled Blast Furnace Slag (Acbfs) Aggregate On The Chemistry Of Pore Solution And The Interfacial Transition Zone, Parth Panchmatia
The Effects Of Air-Cooled Blast Furnace Slag (Acbfs) Aggregate On The Chemistry Of Pore Solution And The Interfacial Transition Zone, Parth Panchmatia
Open Access Dissertations
Numerous laboratory and field studies have demonstrated that concrete incorporating air cooled blast furnace slag (ACBFS) aggregate showed a higher degree of infilling of voids with ettringite as opposed to concrete prepared using naturally mined carbonate aggregates when exposed to similar environmental conditions. This observation prompted some to link the deterioration observed in the ACBFS aggregate concrete structures to the compromised freeze-thaw resistance due to infilling of air voids. Concerns about the release of sulfur from ACBFS aggregate into the pore solution of concrete had been presented as the reason for the observed ettringite deposits in the air voids. However, …
Lab-Scale Exploration Of Abiotic Transformation Approaches For Groundwater Remediation Of Per- And Polyfluoroalkyl Acids, Saerom Park
Open Access Dissertations
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), a group of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), have been extensively used in relatively large amount since the 1950s for industrial and consumer applications such as surfactants, coatings, paper packing products, and fire-fighting foams (e.g., aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs)) due to their unique surfactant property and extremely chemically and thermally stable nature. Of the known PFAAs, long chain perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) have received increasing attention in recent years due to their global distribution, environmental persistence, biological recalcitrance, bioaccumulative properties, and potential toxicities. Recently, other PFAAs such as 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 …
Effect Of Feed Additive Enzymes On Growth Performance And Immunological Response In Growing Pigs And Poultry, Emily R. Otto-Tice
Effect Of Feed Additive Enzymes On Growth Performance And Immunological Response In Growing Pigs And Poultry, Emily R. Otto-Tice
Open Access Dissertations
As demand for oilseeds and grains increase for uses beyond livestock feeds, swine and poultry producers are continually challenged to source alternative feed ingredients or co-products that are traditionally fed to ruminant animals. Many of these alternative feed ingredients have characteristics, such as higher fiber content or inherent antinutritional factors, that may reduce the feeding value for swine and poultry. To help improve the nutrient availability as well as understanding the positive affect that feeding fiber can have on gut health, biotech companies have developed novel enzymes to help breakdown these complex carbohydrate structures to release additional energy or reduce …
Development Of A Direct-Contact Triculture Model Of The Human Blood Brain Barrier And Potential Applications As A Preclinical Drug Screening Tool, Aimable Ngendahimana
Development Of A Direct-Contact Triculture Model Of The Human Blood Brain Barrier And Potential Applications As A Preclinical Drug Screening Tool, Aimable Ngendahimana
Open Access Dissertations
Given the high cost and emerging ethical and public concerns associated with the use of animal models, the use of in vitro techniques is gaining considerable attention in research programs related to CNS drug discovery and development. More specifically, various in vitro cell culture models for studying and predicting drug transport across the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) were developed as preclinical research tools for neurological drug discovery and development. The main goal of the present studies has been to improve conventional in vitro methods used in mimicking the BBB physiology and functions by allowing physiologically complex interactions of the human BBB …
Engineering Novel 3d Tumor-Stroma Models To Bridge The Gap Between Preclinical Drug Development And Human Clinical Outcomes, Theodore J. Puls
Engineering Novel 3d Tumor-Stroma Models To Bridge The Gap Between Preclinical Drug Development And Human Clinical Outcomes, Theodore J. Puls
Open Access Dissertations
While much progress has been made in the war on cancer, shortcomings in the drug development process have kept anti-cancer clinical trial success rates low. One of the many factors implicated in this is the lack of pathophysiologically relevant and predictive preclinical models. Specifically, traditional preclinical tumor models do not capture tumor microenvironment complexity and heterogeneity, while advanced three-dimensional (3D) models suffer from poor reproducibility, lack of relevant and standardized extracellular matrix (ECM), and inability to interface with automated, high-throughput systems. Because of this, it has been suggested that developing novel phenotypic tumor models which balance the need for complexity …
Geophysical Signatures Of Fracture Mechanisms, Anahita Modiriasari
Geophysical Signatures Of Fracture Mechanisms, Anahita Modiriasari
Open Access Dissertations
Fractures and discontinuities have a significant influence on the mechanical and hydraulic properties of brittle materials such as rock. The prediction of rock mass behavior requires information on the location and character of the initiation, propagation, and coalescence of new and pre-existing cracks. Methods based on the interpretation of seismic waves are of great interest because the waves can be used to probe internal damage in rock. The objective of this research is to characterize crack initiation, propagation, and coalescence inside rock using wave propagation. Digital image correlation (DIC) was employed to investigate crack evolution on the surface of rock …