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Empirical Legal Studies Before 1940: A Bibliographic Essay, Herbert M. Kritzer
Empirical Legal Studies Before 1940: A Bibliographic Essay, Herbert M. Kritzer
Articles
The modern empirical legal studies movement has well-known antecedents in the law and society and law and economics traditions of the latter half of the 20th century. Less well known is the body of empirical research on legal phenomena from the period prior to World War II. This paper is an extensive bibliographic essay that surveys the English language empirical legal research from approximately 1940 and earlier. The essay is arranged around the themes in the research: criminal justice, civil justice (general studies of civil litigation, auto accident litigation and compensation, divorce, small claims, jurisdiction and procedure, civil juries), debt …
Influence Of Magnesium Nitrate On The Corrosion Performance Of Sol-Gel Coated Aa2024-T3 Aluminium Alloy, Rajath Varma, Brendan Duffy, John Cassidy
Influence Of Magnesium Nitrate On The Corrosion Performance Of Sol-Gel Coated Aa2024-T3 Aluminium Alloy, Rajath Varma, Brendan Duffy, John Cassidy
Articles
Traditional anti-corrosion technology has relied heavily on using reducible metal species, predominantly hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)), for protecting reactive metal alloys such as aluminium which is extensively used in the aerospace sector. However, the impending changes in the use of Cr(VI) in Europe and the United States have forced aerospace manufacturers to examine alternative materials for protecting aluminium. One of the most promising alternatives being investigated are organosilane based sol-gels containing anticorrosion additives. In this work the anti-corrosion properties of magnesium (II) nitrate (Mg(NO3)2) as a inhibitor was investigated at different concentrations (0.1% - 1.0 wt %) in a methyltriethoxysilane (MTEOS) …
“He Would Kill Me With His Penis”: Genocidal Rape In Rwanda As A State Crime, Christopher W. Mullins
“He Would Kill Me With His Penis”: Genocidal Rape In Rwanda As A State Crime, Christopher W. Mullins
Articles
Only recently have critical criminologists begun a systematic exploration of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity as state crimes (Kramer and Michalowski 2005; Mullins and Rothe 2008; Haveman and Smeulers 2008). This paper contributes to that growing literature through examining the nature and dynamics of sexual violence as it occurred during the 1994 Rwandan genocide. It draws upon empirical examination of events depicted in transcripts of trials held before the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. It qualitatively examines the role of leaders in producing mass sexual assaults. It explores how sexual mutilations were more intense expressions of what the …
Raman Spectroscopy: A Potential Platform For The Rapid Measurement Of Carbon Nanotube-Induced Cytotoxicity, Peter Knief, Colin Clarke, Eva Herzog, Maria Davoren, Fiona Lyng, Aidan Meade, Hugh Byrne
Raman Spectroscopy: A Potential Platform For The Rapid Measurement Of Carbon Nanotube-Induced Cytotoxicity, Peter Knief, Colin Clarke, Eva Herzog, Maria Davoren, Fiona Lyng, Aidan Meade, Hugh Byrne
Articles
In this study the suitability of Raman spectroscopy for the determination of carbon nanotube mediated toxicity on human alveolar carcinoma epithelial cells (A549) is explored. The exposure of this cell line represents the primary pathway of exposure in humans, that of inhalation. Peak ratio analysis demonstrates a dose dependent response which correlates to previous toxicological studies. Principal component analysis is employed to further classify cellular response as a function of dose and to examine differences between spectra as a function of exposed concentration. To further illustrate the potential of Raman spectroscopy in this field, Partial Least Squares (PLS) regression and …
Silver Doped Perfluoropolyether-Urethane Coatings: Antibacterial Activity And Surface Analysis, Niall Stobie, Brendan Duffy, Steven Hinder, Patrick Mchale, Declan Mccormack
Silver Doped Perfluoropolyether-Urethane Coatings: Antibacterial Activity And Surface Analysis, Niall Stobie, Brendan Duffy, Steven Hinder, Patrick Mchale, Declan Mccormack
Articles
The colonisation of clinical and industrial surfaces with pathogenic microorganisms has prompted increased research into the development of effective antibacterial and antifouling coatings. There is evidence that implanted biomedical surfaces coated with metallic silver can be inactivated by hysiological fluids, thus reducing the bioactivity of the coating. In this work, we report the biofilm inhibition of Staphylococcus epidermidis using a roomtemperatureprocessedsilver dopedperfluoropolyether-urethane coating. The release of silver ions from these fluoropolymers over a six-day period inhibited bacterial encrustation – as observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis indicated differences in carbon, fluorine and sodium surface composition …
Tril, A Functional Component Of The Tlr4 Signaling Complex, Highly Expressed In Brain, Susan Carpenter, Thaddeus Carlson, Jerome Dellacasagrande, Amaya Garcia, Sharon Gibbons, Paul J. Hertzog, Anthony Lyons, Lih-Ling Lin, Marina A Lynch, Tom P. Monie, Caroline Murphy, Katherine Seidl, Christine Anne Wells, Aisling Dunne, Luke O'Neill
Tril, A Functional Component Of The Tlr4 Signaling Complex, Highly Expressed In Brain, Susan Carpenter, Thaddeus Carlson, Jerome Dellacasagrande, Amaya Garcia, Sharon Gibbons, Paul J. Hertzog, Anthony Lyons, Lih-Ling Lin, Marina A Lynch, Tom P. Monie, Caroline Murphy, Katherine Seidl, Christine Anne Wells, Aisling Dunne, Luke O'Neill
Articles
TLR4 is the primary sensor of LPS. In this study, we describe for the first time TLR4 interactor with leucine-rich repeats (TRIL), which is a novel component of the TLR4 complex. TRIL is expressed in a number of tissues, most prominently in the brain but also in the spinal cord, lung, kidney, and ovary. TRIL is composed of a signal sequence, 13 leucine-rich repeats, a fibronectin domain, and a single transmembrane spanning region. TRIL is induced by LPS in the human astrocytoma cell line U373, in murine brain following i.p. injection, and in human PBMC. Endogenous TRIL interacts with TLR4 …
Dispersion Medium Modulates Oxidative Stress Response Of Human Lung Epithelial Cells Upon Exposure To Carbon Nanomaterial Samples, Eva Herzog, Hugh Byrne, Maria Davoren, Alan Casey, Albert Duschl, Gertie Janneke Oostingh
Dispersion Medium Modulates Oxidative Stress Response Of Human Lung Epithelial Cells Upon Exposure To Carbon Nanomaterial Samples, Eva Herzog, Hugh Byrne, Maria Davoren, Alan Casey, Albert Duschl, Gertie Janneke Oostingh
Articles
Due to their large specific surface area, the potential of nanoparticles to be highly reactive and to induce oxidative stress is particularly high. In addition, some types of nanoparticles contain transition metals as trace impurities which are known to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) in biological systems. This study investigates the potential of two types of single-walled carbon nanotube samples, nanoparticulate carbon black and crocidolite asbestos to induce ROS in lung epithelial cells in vitro. Carbon nanotube and carbon black samples were used as produced, without further purification or processing, in order to best mimic occupational exposure by inhalation of …
Invisible Borders: Mapping Out Virtual Law, Kathleen Claussen
Invisible Borders: Mapping Out Virtual Law, Kathleen Claussen
Articles
No abstract provided.
The Interactions Of The Largest Subunit Of Rna Polymerase Ii With Other Cellular Proteins: A Bioinformatic Approach, Abhijit Shukla, Aparna Natarajan, Sukesh Bhaumik, Hany A. El-Shemy, David A. Lightfoot
The Interactions Of The Largest Subunit Of Rna Polymerase Ii With Other Cellular Proteins: A Bioinformatic Approach, Abhijit Shukla, Aparna Natarajan, Sukesh Bhaumik, Hany A. El-Shemy, David A. Lightfoot
Articles
The function of a protein is governed by its interaction with other proteins inside a cell. Therefore, it is important to identify the interacting partners of a particular protein to decipher its function. The protein interaction networks are generally determined by bioinformatic as well as experimental methodologies such as yeast two hybrid, mass spectrometry, immunoprecipitation, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer assays. Here, we have analyzed bioinformatically the interactions of Rpb1p (the largest subunit of RNA Polymerase II) with other proteins in yeast, using Cytoscape software and Biogrid/Biomart database. We find that Rpb1p interacts with a large number of proteins involved …
The Interactions Of The Largest Subunit Of Rna Polymerase Ii With Other Cellular Proteins: A Bioinformatic Approach, Abhijit Shukla, Aparna Natarajan, Sukesh Bhaumik, Hany A. El-Shemy, David A. Lightfoot
The Interactions Of The Largest Subunit Of Rna Polymerase Ii With Other Cellular Proteins: A Bioinformatic Approach, Abhijit Shukla, Aparna Natarajan, Sukesh Bhaumik, Hany A. El-Shemy, David A. Lightfoot
Articles
The function of a protein is governed by its interaction with other proteins inside a cell. Therefore, it is important to identify the interacting partners of a particular protein to decipher its function. The protein interaction networks are generally determined by bioinformatic as well as experimental methodologies such as yeast two hybrid, mass spectrometry, immunoprecipitation, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer assays. Here, we have analyzed bioinformatically the interactions of Rpb1p (the largest subunit of RNA Polymerase II) with other proteins in yeast, using Cytoscape software and Biogrid/ Biomart database. We find that Rpb1p interacts with a large number of proteins …
Comparative Models Of Hydrocarbon Emissions For A Diesel Engine Operating At Constant Loads And Speeds, Dennis G. Watson, David R. Bostic, Tony V. Harrison
Comparative Models Of Hydrocarbon Emissions For A Diesel Engine Operating At Constant Loads And Speeds, Dennis G. Watson, David R. Bostic, Tony V. Harrison
Articles
Linear multiple regression (LMR) and nonlinear polynomial network (NPN) models were developed from data collected from ISO 8178‐4 (1996) test cycle B‐type tests (ISO) and an expanded set of tests (EXP) to predict hydrocarbon (HC) emissions from a diesel engine. LMR using the ISO training data (R2 = 0.94) resulted in overfitting of the model as applied to the evaluation data (R2 = 0.49). LMR based on the expanded data (R2 = 0.68) was a better LMR model when applied to the evaluation data (R2 = 0.64). NPN using the expanded training data (R2 = 0.99) resulted in the best …
Four Observations About Hate Speech Articles & Essays, Richard Delgado, Jean Stefancic
Four Observations About Hate Speech Articles & Essays, Richard Delgado, Jean Stefancic
Articles
No abstract provided.
Inactivation Of Escherichia Coli In Orange Juice Using Ozone, Sonal Patil, Paula Bourke, Jesus Maria Frias, Brijesh Tiwari, Patrick J. Cullen
Inactivation Of Escherichia Coli In Orange Juice Using Ozone, Sonal Patil, Paula Bourke, Jesus Maria Frias, Brijesh Tiwari, Patrick J. Cullen
Articles
This research investigated the efficacy of gaseous ozone for the inactivation of Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and NCTC 12900 strains in orange juice. Orange juice inoculated with E. coli (106 CFU mL-1) as a challenge microorganism was treated with ozone at 75-78µg mL-1 for different time periods (0-18 min). The efficacy of ozone for inactivation of both strains of E. coli was evaluated as a function of different juice types: model orange juice, fresh unfiltered juice, juice without pulp, and juice filtered through 500mm or 1mm sieves. Fast inactivation rates for total reduction of E. coli …
Application Of Natural Antimicrobials For Food Preservation, Brijesh Tiwari, Vasilis Valdramidis, Colm O' Donnell, Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan, Patrick J. Cullen, Paula Bourke
Application Of Natural Antimicrobials For Food Preservation, Brijesh Tiwari, Vasilis Valdramidis, Colm O' Donnell, Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan, Patrick J. Cullen, Paula Bourke
Articles
In this review, antimicrobials from a range of plant, animal, and microbial sources are reviewed 10 along with their potential applications in food systems. Chemical and biochemical antimicrobial 11 compounds derived from these natural sources and their activity against a range of pathogenic and 12 spoilage microorganisms pertinent to food, together with their effects on food organoleptic proper- 13 ties, are outlined. Factors influencing the antimicrobial activity of such agents are discussed 14 including extraction methods, molecular weight, and agent origin. These issues are considered in 15 conjunction with the latest developments in the quantification of the minimum inhibitory (and …
Hmgb1 Mediates Endogenous Tlr2 Activation And Brain Tumor Regression, James Curtin, Naiyou Liu, Marianela Candolfi, Weidong Xiong, Hikmat Assi, Kader Yagiz, Matthew Edwards, Kathrin Michelsen, Kurt Kroeger, Chunyan Liu, Akm Ghulam Muhammad, Mary Clark, Moshe Arditi, Begonya Comin-Anduix, Antoni Ribas, Pedro Lowenstein, Maria Castro
Hmgb1 Mediates Endogenous Tlr2 Activation And Brain Tumor Regression, James Curtin, Naiyou Liu, Marianela Candolfi, Weidong Xiong, Hikmat Assi, Kader Yagiz, Matthew Edwards, Kathrin Michelsen, Kurt Kroeger, Chunyan Liu, Akm Ghulam Muhammad, Mary Clark, Moshe Arditi, Begonya Comin-Anduix, Antoni Ribas, Pedro Lowenstein, Maria Castro
Articles
BACKGROUND: Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive primary brain tumor that carries a 5-y survival rate of 5%. Attempts at eliciting a clinically relevant anti-GBM immune response in brain tumor patients have met with limited success, which is due to brain immune privilege, tumor immune evasion, and a paucity of dendritic cells (DCs) within the central nervous system. Herein we uncovered a novel pathway for the activation of an effective anti-GBM immune response mediated by high-mobility-group box 1 (HMGB1), an alarmin protein released from dying tumor cells, which acts as an endogenous ligand for Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) signaling …
Adenovirus E4orf4 Induces Hpv-16 Late L1 Mrna Production, Monica Somberg, Margaret Rush, Joanna Fay, Fergus Ryan, Helen Lambkin, Göran Akusjärvi, Stefan Schwartz
Adenovirus E4orf4 Induces Hpv-16 Late L1 Mrna Production, Monica Somberg, Margaret Rush, Joanna Fay, Fergus Ryan, Helen Lambkin, Göran Akusjärvi, Stefan Schwartz
Articles
The adenovirus E4orf4 protein regulates the switch from early to late gene expression during the adenoviral replication cycle. Here we report that overexpression of adenovirus E4orf4 induces human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV-16) late gene expression from subgenomic expression plasmids. E4orf4 specifically overcomes the negative effects of two splicing silencers at the two late HPV-16 splice sites SD3632 and SA5639. This results in the production of HPV-16 spliced L1 mRNAs. We show that the interaction of E4orf4 with protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is necessary for induction of HPV-16 late gene expression. Also an E4orf4 mutant that fails to bind the cellular …
Transcriptional Regulation Of Cholesterol 24-Hydroxylase By Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors., Marjan Shafaati, Riona O'Driscoll, Ingemar Bjorkhem, Steve Meaney
Transcriptional Regulation Of Cholesterol 24-Hydroxylase By Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors., Marjan Shafaati, Riona O'Driscoll, Ingemar Bjorkhem, Steve Meaney
Articles
The mechanistic basis for the tissue specific expression of cholesterol elimination pathways is poorly understood. To gain additional insight into this phenomenon we considered it of interest to investigate if epigenetic mechanisms are involved in the regulation of the brain-specific enzyme cholesterol 24-hydroxylase (CYP46A1), a key regulator of brain cholesterol elimination. We demonstrated a marked time-dependent derepression of the expression of CYP46A1, in response to treatment with the potent histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor Trichostatin A. The pattern of expression of the genes in the genomic region surrounding CYP46A1 was found to be diametrically opposite in brain and liver. Intraperitoneal injection …
Editorial: Nutrition Research Reviews, Katherine Younger
Editorial: Nutrition Research Reviews, Katherine Younger
Articles
Cognitive performance in children and whether this can be improved by nutritional means is an area of investigation fraught with experimental challenges, making it difficult to draw useful conclusions. Hoyland et al. (1) have here provided a much-needed systematic review of the evidence on the specific question of the effects of breakfast on children’s cognitive performance and, unsurprisingly, have concluded that the effects are generally positive, most clearly shown for memory and attention tasks and most easily demonstrated in nutritionally vulnerable children. However, the benefits of food before schoolwork are not necessarily purely, or even mostly, physiological; they could be …
The Tracking Of Dietary Intakes Of Children And Adolescents In Sweden Over Six Years: The European Youth Heart Study, Emma Patterson, Julia Wärnberg Julia Wärnberg, John Kearney, Michael Sjostrom
The Tracking Of Dietary Intakes Of Children And Adolescents In Sweden Over Six Years: The European Youth Heart Study, Emma Patterson, Julia Wärnberg Julia Wärnberg, John Kearney, Michael Sjostrom
Articles
The stability of dietary habits through various life-stages is not well understood. A better understanding of the tracking of diet over time could have implications for health promotion as well as for the planning of nutritional epidemiology studies. We examined the stability of dietary intakes of children and adolescents over six years. As part of the European Youth Heart Study, in 1998-9, a 24-h dietary recall was performed on over one thousand 9- and 15-year-olds in Sweden. In 2004-5, 40% returned to the follow-up study. These 452 subjects (273 15- and 179 21-year-olds) were assigned to age- and gender-specific tertiles …
Antitumour And Antimalarial Activity Of Artemisinin–Acridine Hybrids, Michael Jones, Amy Mercer, Paul Stocks, Louise La Pensee, Rick Cosstick, B. Kevin Park, Miriam Kennedy, Ivo Piantanida, Stephen Ward, Jill Davies, Patrick Bray, Sarah Rawe, Jonathon Baird, Tafadzwa Charidza, Omar Janneh, Paul O'Neill
Antitumour And Antimalarial Activity Of Artemisinin–Acridine Hybrids, Michael Jones, Amy Mercer, Paul Stocks, Louise La Pensee, Rick Cosstick, B. Kevin Park, Miriam Kennedy, Ivo Piantanida, Stephen Ward, Jill Davies, Patrick Bray, Sarah Rawe, Jonathon Baird, Tafadzwa Charidza, Omar Janneh, Paul O'Neill
Articles
Artemisinin–acridine hybrids were prepared and evaluated for their in vitro activity against tumour cell lines and a chloroquine sensitive strain of Plasmodium falciparum. They showed a 2–4-fold increase in activity against HL60, MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells in comparison with dihydroartemisinin (DHA) and moderate antimalarial activity. Strong evidence that the compounds induce apoptosis in HL60 cells was obtained by flow cytometry, which indicated accumulation of cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle.
Public Access To Spatial Data On Private-Land Conservation, Jessica Owley, Amy Wilson Morris, Adena R. Rissman
Public Access To Spatial Data On Private-Land Conservation, Jessica Owley, Amy Wilson Morris, Adena R. Rissman
Articles
No abstract provided.
An Integrated Approach To The Toxicity Assessment Of Irish Marine Sediments Application Of Porewater Toxicity Identification Evaluation (Tie) To Irish Marine Sediments, Ailbhe Macken, Michelle Giltrap, Barry Foley, Evin Mcgovern, Brendan Mchugh, Maria Davoren
An Integrated Approach To The Toxicity Assessment Of Irish Marine Sediments Application Of Porewater Toxicity Identification Evaluation (Tie) To Irish Marine Sediments, Ailbhe Macken, Michelle Giltrap, Barry Foley, Evin Mcgovern, Brendan Mchugh, Maria Davoren
Articles
An integrated approach to the ecotoxicological assessment of Irish marine sediments was carried out between 2004 and 2007. Phase I Toxicity Identification Evaluation (TIE) of sediment porewaters from two sites on the east coast of Ireland were conducted. Initial Tier I screening of three Irish sites identified the need for TIE after significant toxicity was observed with Tisbe battagliai and the Microtox® assay at two of the assayed sites (Alexandra Basin and Dunmore East). Porewaters classified as toxic were characterised using four manipulations, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) chelation, sodium thiosulphate addition, C18 Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) and Cation Exchange (CE) SPE. …
Rethinking The Constitutional Criminal Procedure Of Juvenile Transfer Hearings: Apprendi, Adult Punishment, And Adult Process, Jenny E. Carroll
Rethinking The Constitutional Criminal Procedure Of Juvenile Transfer Hearings: Apprendi, Adult Punishment, And Adult Process, Jenny E. Carroll
Articles
No abstract provided.
Introductory Note To The United Nations Security Council Resolution 1874, Daniel H. Joyner
Introductory Note To The United Nations Security Council Resolution 1874, Daniel H. Joyner
Articles
No abstract provided.
Response To Reverend William Schweiker Symposium - A Common Morality For The Global Age: In Gratitude For What We Are Given: Legal Concepts And Applications, Heather Elliott
Articles
No abstract provided.
Reflection Contributions To The Dispersion Artefact In Ftir Spectra Of Single Biological Cells., Paul Bassan, Hugh Byrne, Joe Lee, Franck Bonnier, Colin Clarke, Paul Dumas, Ehsan Gazi, Michael Brown, Noel Clarke, Peter Gardner
Reflection Contributions To The Dispersion Artefact In Ftir Spectra Of Single Biological Cells., Paul Bassan, Hugh Byrne, Joe Lee, Franck Bonnier, Colin Clarke, Paul Dumas, Ehsan Gazi, Michael Brown, Noel Clarke, Peter Gardner
Articles
Fourier transform infrared spectra of a single cell in transflection geometry are seen to vary significantly with position on the cell, showing a distorted derivative-like lineshape in the region of the optically dense nucleus. A similar behaviour is observable in a model system of the protein albumin doped in a potassium bromide disk. It is demonstrated that the spectrum at any point is a weighted sum of the sample reflection and transmission and that the dominance of the reflection spectrum in optically dense regions can account for some of the spectral distortions previously attributed to dispersion artefacts. Rather than being …
Parens Patriae Run Amuck: The Child Welfare System's Disregard For The Constitutional Rights Of Non-Offending Parents, Vivek Sankaran
Parens Patriae Run Amuck: The Child Welfare System's Disregard For The Constitutional Rights Of Non-Offending Parents, Vivek Sankaran
Articles
Over the past hundred years, a consensus has emerged recognizing a parent's ability to raise his or her child as a fundamental, sacrosanct right protected by the Constitution. Federal courts have repeatedly rejected the parens patriae summary mode of decision making that predominated juvenile courts at the turn of the twentieth century and have instead held that juvenile courts must afford basic due process to parents prior to depriving them of custodial rights to their children. This recognition has led to the strengthening of procedural protections for parents accused of child abuse or neglect in civil child protection proceedings. Yet, …
Evolutionary Theory And The Origin Of Property Rights, James E. Krier
Evolutionary Theory And The Origin Of Property Rights, James E. Krier
Articles
For legal scholars, the evolution of property rights has been a topic in search of a theory. My aim here is to draw together various accounts (some of them largely neglected in the legal literature), from dated to modern, and suggest a way they can be melded into a plausible explanation of property's genesis and early development. What results hardly amounts to a theory, but it does suggest an outline for one. Moreover, it provides a primer on the subject, a reasonably solid foundation for thinking and talking about the evolution of property rights.
Translating Unocal: The Expanding Web Of Liability For Business Entities Implicated In International Crimes, Anita Ramasastry, Robert C. Thompson, Mark B. Taylor
Translating Unocal: The Expanding Web Of Liability For Business Entities Implicated In International Crimes, Anita Ramasastry, Robert C. Thompson, Mark B. Taylor
Articles
The Ninth Circuit ruled that a corporation could be held liable under the federal Alien Tort Claims Act for its complicity in a violation of international criminal law occurring outside the U.S. (Doe I v. Unocal Corp., 395 F.3d 932 (9th Cir. 2002)). Since then, litigants have filed increasing numbers of such cases. These cases raise two questions: (1) Is the United States the only country that provides judicial accountability for business entities involved in international crimes abroad? and (2) How are other countries "translating" the basic kinds of accountability that Unocal recognized into their own legal systems? This Article …
A Local Government By Any Other Name, In Proceedings Of The Washington State Association Of Municipal Attorneys, Hugh D. Spitzer
A Local Government By Any Other Name, In Proceedings Of The Washington State Association Of Municipal Attorneys, Hugh D. Spitzer
Articles
This paper reviews the categories that Washington legislators and the Washington State Supreme Court have used to classify and describe local government units. It then describes how the large array of classifications—and the lack of consistent interpretation and use of those labels—leads to confusion and unnecessary litigation. After presenting several case studies of the effects of confusing definitions, the paper suggests that legislation reducing the number of terms classifying local governments would benefit lawyers, judges, local government and the general public. It specifically recommends that "municipal corporation" become the standard category for almost all local governments, and that "governmental body" …