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Understanding The Effect Modifications Of 2d Materials Have On Conductivity Using Terahertz Spectroscopy, Matt David Capobianco Oct 2023

Understanding The Effect Modifications Of 2d Materials Have On Conductivity Using Terahertz Spectroscopy, Matt David Capobianco

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Due to the current condition of our climate, we need to continue implementing greener methods into our energy infrastructure. While green energy production has been effectively implemented, there is still a need for greener energy storage. Heterogenous photocatalysis can store energy from the sun in chemical bonds, via alternative fuel production, in order to achieve greener energy storage. 2D materials are a class of heterogenous photocatalysts that are of major interest due to their manipulability, large surface areas, and more. A key property of these heterogenous photocatalysts is photoconductivity, which directly correlates to their photocatalytic rate. Terahertz (THz) spectroscopy is …

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Investigating Galaxy Morphology In Large Surveys Using Novel Machine Learning Frameworks, Aritra Ghosh Oct 2023

Investigating Galaxy Morphology In Large Surveys Using Novel Machine Learning Frameworks, Aritra Ghosh

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

The morphological features and structural parameters of galaxies serve as a cornerstone in comprehending their attributes and have played an instrumental role in our understanding of galaxy formation and evolution. In this work, we develop novel machine learning frameworks that can determine the morphology of billion-galaxy samples expected over the next decade. We demonstrate that our frameworks can be applied across a wide variety of ground and space-based datasets, can be trained with minuscule amounts of real data, and can predict ~15-60% better uncertainties than existing morphology-determination tools. We use our frameworks to create one of the largest structural parameter …

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The Role Of Mechanical Forces In Biological Motion And Morphology, Sorosh Amiri Oct 2023

The Role Of Mechanical Forces In Biological Motion And Morphology, Sorosh Amiri

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Mechanical forces are essential in many life processes. The mechanical machinery of cells \textbf{--} the cytoskeleton is a complex system of force-bearing and active force-generation components. These components dynamically interact far from equilibrium in order to perform or facilitate biological functions at the cell scale such as shape change, migration, and polarization. Collectively, cells orchestrate single-cell mechanical functions to give rise to emerging mechanics at the tissue scale, such as embryo development or collective migration. Despite a good understanding of molecular mechanisms of force generation and force bearing, it is still unclear how molecular mechanics leads to cell-scale or tissue-scale …

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Environmental Surveillance Of Viral Pathogens For Identifying Infectious Disease Outbreaks, Alessandro Zulli Oct 2023

Environmental Surveillance Of Viral Pathogens For Identifying Infectious Disease Outbreaks, Alessandro Zulli

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

The detection and quantification of viral infectious disease outbreaks is necessary for theeffective implementation of public health interventions that protect human health. Communicable viral diseases are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and prior pandemics have had acute economic and social impacts. However, the identification and tracking of community wide outbreaks for most human viruses across the developed and developing world does not occur due to resource constraints. The goal of this dissertation’s research is to develop the science and methodology that underpin the environmental surveillance of viruses, focusing specifically on wastewater monitoring for identifying and tracking viral …

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Early And Late Stage Mechanisms Of Autophagosome Formation, Taryn J. Olivas Oct 2023

Early And Late Stage Mechanisms Of Autophagosome Formation, Taryn J. Olivas

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

During autophagosome biogenesis, the incorporation of transmembrane proteins into the expanding phagophore is not readily observed. In addition, the membrane surface area of the organelle expands rapidly, while the volume of the autophagosome is kept low. This means that canonical methods for membrane biogenesis do not apply to autophagosomes. Exciting developments in recent years support a new mechanism that could explain these unique attributes of this double-membrane organelle. Several recent studies have suggested the autophagosome expands predominantly through the direct protein-mediated transfer of lipids through the lipid transfer protein ATG2.As these lipids are only introduced into the cytoplasmic-facing leaflet of …

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Mechanisms Of Immunopathology Following Covid-19 And Vaccination In Children & Early Life Immunity In Neonates, Anjali Ramaswamy Oct 2023

Mechanisms Of Immunopathology Following Covid-19 And Vaccination In Children & Early Life Immunity In Neonates, Anjali Ramaswamy

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Children and babies have unique infectious and inflammatory susceptibilities and are at an increased risk for developing severe disease or autoinflammatory sequelae from infections. However, many pediatric autoinflammatory diseases are poorly understood, as are mechanisms by which humans mount immune defenses in early life. We uncovered novel immunopathologic mechanisms underlying two childhood inflammatory conditions linked to COVID-19 infection and vaccination: multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and vaccine-adjacent myopericarditis, respectively. We leveraged a systems approach to study these conditions, using multiomic single-cell RNA sequencing and serum profiling. We found key signatures of MIS-C that include innate immune triggering, and an …

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Neuroimaging And Genetic Studies: Toward An Understanding Of Human Psychological Traits, Shiying Wang Oct 2023

Neuroimaging And Genetic Studies: Toward An Understanding Of Human Psychological Traits, Shiying Wang

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Human psychological traits involve multiple domains of individual differences in human behaviors, such as cognitive abilities, personalities, and psychiatric disorders. These psychological traits are closely linked to well-being. Therefore, studying the biological basis of psychological traits is crucial for improving the overall quality of life. Both genetics and neuroimaging are highly related to human psychological traits. Numerous studies have shown the strong genetic influence on individual differences in human psychological traits. Furthermore, neuroimaging, a non-invasive technique to examine brain structure and function, has evolved into a powerful tool for analyzing human psychological traits. The purpose of this dissertation is to …

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Tackling Fgfr Fusion-Positive Cancers With A Novel Synergistic Combination Of Fgfr And Hdac Inhibitors, Zechen Wang Oct 2023

Tackling Fgfr Fusion-Positive Cancers With A Novel Synergistic Combination Of Fgfr And Hdac Inhibitors, Zechen Wang

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

FGFR genomic alterations have been implicated in a number of cancers as oncogenesis driver genes. However, despite the approval of several FGFR inhibitors as targeted therapies for the treatment of cancer patients with FGFR aberrations in recent years, durable responses for FGFR inhibitors are still uncommon and most patients relapse to metastatic disease. In particular, FGFR2 fusions have been detected in ~15% of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) patients. ICC is a highly aggressive bile duct carcinoma, with a dismal 5-year overall survival rate for patients at advanced stages. Therefore, there is a desperate and urgent need for the development of new …

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A Multi-Modal Investigation Of The Basic Neural Processing Mechanisms Of Real Human Face Viewing, Megan Kelley Oct 2023

A Multi-Modal Investigation Of The Basic Neural Processing Mechanisms Of Real Human Face Viewing, Megan Kelley

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

The neural processing of real human faces during direct interaction remains unknown. Prior research has established that face simulations do not capture the full breadth of processing that occurs during real face viewing, demonstrating the need for new approaches. Here we present multimodal methodological developments which combine fNIRS with EEG and eye-tracking, as well as a novel paradigm for disrupted viewing of another real face as well as a robot control, which enables probing of the impact of time and continuity on real face specific neural processing networks. We hypothesized that the spatial and temporal complexity of information extraction from …

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Data-Driven Mapping Between Functional Connectomes Using Optimal Transport, Javid Dadashkarimi Oct 2023

Data-Driven Mapping Between Functional Connectomes Using Optimal Transport, Javid Dadashkarimi

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Open-source, publicly available neuroimaging datasets---whether from large-scale data collection efforts or pooled from multiple smaller studies---offer unprecedented sample sizes and promote generalization efforts. Releasing data can democratize science, increase the replicability of findings, and lead to discoveries. Due to patient privacy, computational, and data storage concerns, researchers typically release preprocessed data with the voxelwise time series parcellated into a map of predefined regions, known as an atlas. However, releasing preprocessed data also limits the choices available to the end-user. This is especially true for connectomics, as connectomes created from different atlases are not directly comparable. With the absence of gold …

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Religion And The Politics Of Gender, Radha Sarkar Oct 2023

Religion And The Politics Of Gender, Radha Sarkar

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

This dissertation seeks to understand how religion shapes political outcomes related to women's participation. Much political science scholarship emphasizes the material or structural aspects of religion in shaping political commitments. In contrast, I highlight the importance of religious norms and beliefs, conveyed chiefly by clerical leaders. I delve into the Colombian case and compare the effects of Catholic and Pentecostal teachings about women's roles and attributes. With survey experimental data, text-as-data techniques, and interview-based fieldwork, I demonstrate that Catholic sermons tend to elicit benevolent sexism, a mindset that seeks to protect women who occupy traditional male roles in the public …

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The Dark Side Of Iconicity: How Controversial Icons Become Lightning Rods For Passionate Audiences, Vanessa Kristin Bittner Oct 2023

The Dark Side Of Iconicity: How Controversial Icons Become Lightning Rods For Passionate Audiences, Vanessa Kristin Bittner

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

This dissertation delves into the dynamic interplay between controversial public figures, audiences, and the creation of icons today. Through three distinct articles, it explores how icons emerge and evolve within contentious political discourse. The first article introduces the concept of "dialectic icons," exemplified by figures like Colin Kaepernick, demonstrating their ability to evoke emotional responses and drive social polarization. The second article examines the role of antagonistic audiences in magnifying negative iconization, using Greta Thunberg as a case study to reveal the conflict potential of these figures. The third article introduces the notion of "iconic extensions" using the MAGA hat …

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Novel Methods For Identification And Inference In Public Health, Jinghao Sun Oct 2023

Novel Methods For Identification And Inference In Public Health, Jinghao Sun

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

This dissertation consists of three essays, each one tackling issues related to "identification'' in the statistical methods used in public health research. In the context of statistics, ``identification'' refers to the process of learning the values of the parameters or characteristics of a model or system after obtaining an infinite number of observations from it. In these essays, I draw attention to the limitations of current methods, which often hinge on specifying a limited set of data generating processes (DGPs). However, these DGPs may fail to correspond accurately with the intricacies of actual situations or with the pre-existing knowledge within …

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Formal Verification Of Asynchronous Vlsi Design Flow, Xiang Wu Oct 2023

Formal Verification Of Asynchronous Vlsi Design Flow, Xiang Wu

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

While software bugs can be addressed through patches, hardware bugs require design changes, making their resolution more time consuming and expensive. Formal methods offer the ability to prove the absence of bugs in hardware systems, and their application has been prominent in the hardware industry. However, despite the adoption of formal methods, hardware bugs are still prevalent in commercial hardware. Many existing formal methods applied in Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) design flows are partial or only verify specific properties rather than ensuring overall functional correctness. The dissertation tackles the verification challenge specifically for asynchronous circuits, which adopts a self-timed approach …

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'Force And Understanding' And Instability, Hugo William Havranek Oct 2023

'Force And Understanding' And Instability, Hugo William Havranek

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Critics agree that ‘Force and Understanding’ in Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit is of crucial importance for understanding Hegel’s considered position; but the interpretation of the content of the chapter remains highly controversial. In this dissertation, I adopt a reading of ‘Force and Understanding’ on which Hegel is introducing his idiosyncratic notions of atemporal change and identity-in-opposition. Readings that take this approach enjoy prima facie textual support, but have up to now suffered because the views they attribute to Hegel appear obviously philosophically confused. The purpose of the dissertation, therefore, is to argue that Hegel’s use of atemporal change and identity-in-opposition …

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Accelerator-Rich Computer Architectures For Brain-Computer Interfaces, Karthik Sriram Oct 2023

Accelerator-Rich Computer Architectures For Brain-Computer Interfaces, Karthik Sriram

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) are our means of communicating directly with the brain. BCIs implanted on brain tissue offer the highest fidelity communication with the brain and can treat debilitating neurological disorders, control digital devices and improve our understanding of the brain. Unlocking their full potential requires devices capable of processing high data rates sensed from multiple brain regions. However, current BCIs are restricted to a single region, task/treatment, and process low data rates. This is because implantable BCIs must operate within milliwatts of power and respond in real-time within milliseconds to deliver safe treatment. These constraints run counter to the …

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Cp*Rh(Iii)-Catalyzed Syntheses Of Nitrogen Heterocycles From Imines, Adam Jacob Zoll Oct 2023

Cp*Rh(Iii)-Catalyzed Syntheses Of Nitrogen Heterocycles From Imines, Adam Jacob Zoll

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Nitrogen heterocycles are present in almost two-thirds of U.S. FDA approved pharmaceuticals. For this reason, methods for the rapid synthesis of nitrogen heterocycles are highly valued. The first two chapters of this dissertation will discuss the development of Cp*Rh(III)-catalyzed imidoyl C–H activation methods to rapidly access two different pharmaceutically relevant classes of fused bicyclic nitrogen heterocycles. The third chapter describes the Cp*Rh(III)-catalyzed, imine directed N–H functionalization/annulation for the synthesis of piperazinones, a nonaromatic, monocyclic nitrogen heterocycle that has become one of the most extensively used in drug discovery and development.Chapter 1 describes a three-component reaction for the rapid assembly of …

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The Role Of The Protection Of Telomeres 1b (Pot1b) Protein In The Protection Of Telomeric Overhangs And The Regulation Of Telomere Length, Taylor Nicholas Takasugi Oct 2023

The Role Of The Protection Of Telomeres 1b (Pot1b) Protein In The Protection Of Telomeric Overhangs And The Regulation Of Telomere Length, Taylor Nicholas Takasugi

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Malignant cancers must activate telomere maintenance mechanisms to achieve replicative immortality. Mutations in the human Protection of Telomeres 1 (POT1) gene are frequently detected in cancers with abnormally long telomeres, suggesting that the loss of POT1 function disrupts the regulation of telomere length homeostasis to promote telomere elongation. However, our understanding of the mechanisms leading to elongated telomeres remains incomplete. The mouse genome encodes two POT1 proteins, POT1a and POT1b possessing separation of hPOT1 functions. We performed serial transplantation of Pot1b-/- sarcomas to better understand the role of POT1b in regulating telomere length maintenance. While early-generation Pot1b-/- sarcomas initially possessed …

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Essays On The Political Economy Of Foreign Aid, Cleo O'Brien-Udry Oct 2023

Essays On The Political Economy Of Foreign Aid, Cleo O'Brien-Udry

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

This dissertation asks and answers two questions: first, does foreign aid have distributional effects in recipient countries? And, if so, how do these distributional effects undermine donors’ attempts to influence policy? In three essays, I find that international aid targeting changes the balance of power within recipient states. In the first, I theorize the concept of “aid withdrawal” and study its application in climate aid. Using novel observational and experimental evidence, I show that beneficiaries of fossil fuel projects reject international influence after the withdrawal of international support for dirty projects. In contrast, sites of future renewables increase their support …

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Computational Methods For Single-Cell Data: From Decomposition, Integration, To Label Transfer, Yuge Wang Oct 2023

Computational Methods For Single-Cell Data: From Decomposition, Integration, To Label Transfer, Yuge Wang

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Over the past decade, significant advancements have been made in high-throughput single-cell sequencing technologies, revolutionizing our ability to investigate cellular heterogeneity across multiple molecular levels, including gene expression measured by scRNA-seq and chromatin accessibility measured by scATAC-seq. Unlike traditional bulk sequencing approaches, single-cell sequencing techniques enable the characterization of diverse cell types or states within a sample, shedding light on complex biological processes. However, the analysis of single-cell data presents several challenges, including high dimensionality, large-scale datasets, high sparsity, and batch effects arising from both intra- and inter-modalities. Failure to address these challenges can significantly impact downstream applications, such as …

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Exploring 3d Genomics And Its Regulation: Spatial Crispr Screening Reveals Regulators Of 3d Genome Architectures And Chromatin Tracing Unfolds X Chromosome Conformations In Human Pluripotent Stem Cells, Bing Yang Oct 2023

Exploring 3d Genomics And Its Regulation: Spatial Crispr Screening Reveals Regulators Of 3d Genome Architectures And Chromatin Tracing Unfolds X Chromosome Conformations In Human Pluripotent Stem Cells, Bing Yang

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

3D genomics is a rapidly emerging field that seeks to understand the role of the three-dimensional organization of the genome in gene regulation, cellular function, and biological processes. Chromatin tracing has recently emerged as an image-based highly multiplexed fluorescent in-situ hybridization method to detect 3D genome architectures in various biological contexts. However, the regulation of 3D genomics remains less understood. Recent advances in CRISPR screening have enabled systematic identification of genetic perturbations critical to cellular phenotypes and diseases. Yet, the phenotype readouts provided by current CRISPR screens are limited to low content, posing challenges for detection of complex 3D genome …

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Investigation Of Variant Guanine Riboswitches And Other Nucleic Acid Motifs That Sense Metal Ions, Siddhartha Hamal Dhakal Oct 2023

Investigation Of Variant Guanine Riboswitches And Other Nucleic Acid Motifs That Sense Metal Ions, Siddhartha Hamal Dhakal

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Riboswitches are regulatory RNA elements commonly present in the 5′ untranslated regions (UTRs) of certain mRNA molecules. They carry a conserved aptamer region that binds to metabolites or elemental ions. The binding of ligand promotes distinct folding pathway in the RNA structure which is translated into a regulatory response that either activates or inhibits the expression of downstream genes. Over 55 different classes of riboswitches have been experimentally validated so far that govern various aspects of biology in bacteria, archaea, and select eukaryotes. These RNA elements are thought have played crucial roles in gene regulation during the RNA World era, …

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Determining The Role Of Beta-Tubulin 4b In Cilia And Development, Mycah Theair Sewell Oct 2023

Determining The Role Of Beta-Tubulin 4b In Cilia And Development, Mycah Theair Sewell

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Microtubules (MTs) are a key component of the cytoskeleton and participate in multiple cellular functions and processes. MTs are made of α- and β-tubulin proteins that are encoded by multiple, individual isotype genes. Over the recent decades there has been mounting evidence that despite the high similarity among tubulin proteins, these various isotypes have unique functions rather than being functionally redundant. First, tubulins have different expression and localization patterns. Second, mutations in different tubulin genes result in a variety of disease phenotypes, some of which are exclusively tied to specific tubulins. Finally, multiple tubulin studies have shown that tubulin composition …

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Computational And Evolutionary Approaches For Translational Cancer Research, J Nic Fisk Oct 2023

Computational And Evolutionary Approaches For Translational Cancer Research, J Nic Fisk

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

The progression of cancer, including the acquisition of therapeutic resistance and the mortality-inducing metastatic spread of therapy-resistant cell populations, is fundamentally an evolutionary process. To contribute to the development of effective treatments against this evolving scourge, this work leverages phylogenetics, statistics, and machine learning techniques to quantify the effects of genetic variants responsible for therapeutic resistance, resolve the timing of their occurrence, understand evolutionary trajectories, and profile the role of neoantigens in varied cancer systems. First, a bioinformatics pipeline for quantifying selection on neoantigens—tumor-specific antigens and potential targets of the immune systems—is detailed. Second, the evolutionary history of two patients …

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Data-Driven Heart Geometry Modeling For Patient-Specific Biomechanics, Daniel Hyungseok Pak Oct 2023

Data-Driven Heart Geometry Modeling For Patient-Specific Biomechanics, Daniel Hyungseok Pak

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Accurate heart geometry modeling from medical images is important for both cardiovascular research and clinical practice. Prominent use cases include anatomical measurements, physics-based simulations, and 3D-printed phantoms. Various computational approaches have been proposed to automate the geometry modeling tasks. Most existing methods have utilized a ``bottom-up" approach, starting with a simpler geometry representation and progressively increasing its complexity to obtain the final desired output. Such methods have often consisted of mixtures of techniques that tackle each sub-problem separately, which can offer flexibility in the modeling process but can also lead to inefficient workflows and high dependency on human experts. In …

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Gradient-Free Magnetic Resonance Imaging In A Nonuniform B0, With A Novel Low-Field Magnet System, Kartiga Selvaganesan Oct 2023

Gradient-Free Magnetic Resonance Imaging In A Nonuniform B0, With A Novel Low-Field Magnet System, Kartiga Selvaganesan

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Over the last 50 years Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has become a mainstay of modern medicine as a noninvasive diagnostic imaging tool. Most clinical and research MR scanners have trended towards higher field strengths as a means of improving spatial resolution while minimizing scan time. However, widespread availability of these systems is limited, with 90% of people worldwide still lacking access to MRI. Much of this discrepancy comes from the high cost and complexity associated with installing, operating, and maintaining conventional MR scanners. By relaxing the hardware requirements, moving to lower field-strengths, and creating more open-bore systems, MRI can become …

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Resource Allocation Problems For Efficient And Sustainable Next-Generation Networks, Nicholas Nordlund Oct 2023

Resource Allocation Problems For Efficient And Sustainable Next-Generation Networks, Nicholas Nordlund

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

A “next-generation” of networks is emerging as the requirements for and capabilities of modern networked systems grow increasing more complex compared to their predecessors. These next-generation networks include cloud data centers with hardware disaggregation, mega-constellations of low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, and alternative fuel vehicle transportation networks. To ensure efficient design and operation, they require more sophisticated resource allocation strategies. Better resource allocation strategies unlock the full potential of next-generation network infrastructure by using resources more efficiently. These resource allocation strategies that improve efficiency are particularly relevant today as governments, companies, and researchers have begun placing greater emphasis on environmental sustainability. …

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The Role Of Acetylcholine In Directional Retinal Waves And The Development Of Visual Motion, Kathy Zhang Oct 2023

The Role Of Acetylcholine In Directional Retinal Waves And The Development Of Visual Motion, Kathy Zhang

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Sensory systems develop in the absence of external stimuli and are instead driven by spontaneous patterns of activity. In the mouse visual system, spontaneous retinal waves guide the self-organization of topographic projections between the eye and downstream visual structures before the onset of vision. Whether retinal waves also instruct the development of higher order visual responses in single cells downstream of the retina has been unclear. Retinal waves have been traditionally divided into stages based on their primary excitatory drive; however, the spatiotemporal characteristics of different types of retinal waves also vary stereotypically across stages. In the first half of …

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Exitron Splicing Of Odor Receptors In Drosophila, Xueying Shang Oct 2023

Exitron Splicing Of Odor Receptors In Drosophila, Xueying Shang

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Odor receptors (Ors) are the major olfactory receptors in Drosophila. They signalthe presence of food, mates, and predators. Proper expression of Ors is critical for the function of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs). In this study we discovered exitrons in five of the 39 Ors expressed in the adult antennae. Exitrons (exonic introns) are sequences that can be spliced from within a protein-coding exon, thereby altering the resulting protein. Exitrons have not been identified previously in Drosophila to our knowledge. We focused on Or88a, which encodes a pheromone receptor, and found that exitron splicing of Or88a is conserved across five Drosophila …

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Belonging, Equality, And The Law, Danieli Evans Oct 2023

Belonging, Equality, And The Law, Danieli Evans

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

This dissertation is a series of three articles exploring (and critiquing) the ways in which the law sustains and legitimates social exclusion, despite a purported commitment to equal opportunity and non-discrimination. The first article, Socioeconomic Status Discrimination, begins by describing how discrimination based on socioeconomic status (SES) is prevalent and widely accepted under the law. I argue that lawmakers should prohibit SES-based discrimination for the same reasons they prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, and other protected traits. I argue that discrimination based on SES is illegitimate, and importantly, because SES-based discrimination is inextricably intertwined with racial discrimination, by accepting …

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