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Economics Of Invasive Species Damage And Damage Management, Stephanie A. Shwiff, Steven S. Shwiff, Jason Holderieath, William Haden-Chomphosy, Aaron M. Anderson

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Annually, the estimated damage caused by invasive species in the United States has exceeded $100 billion, becoming one of the leading causes of environmental change and global biodiversity loss (Wilcove et al. 1998; Mack et al. 2000; Sala et al. 2000; Pimentel et al. 2005). Invasions by nonnative species highlight the undeniable link and feedback loops between ecological and economic systems (Perrings et al. 2002; Julia et al. 2007). Ecological systems determine if the conditions are suitable for invasion by nonnative species; however, economic systems help fuel the introduction of nonnative species and are themselves affected by invasive species when …

Frogs (Coqui Frogs, Greenhouse Frogs, Cuban Tree Frogs, And Cane Toads), Karen H. Beard, Steve A. Johnson, Aaron B. Shiels

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Amphibians are perhaps most well known for their highly threatened status, which often masks appreciation for the great numbers of species that are widespread global invaders (Kraus 2009). Both purposeful and accidental introductions of amphibians have occurred worldwide. Motivations for purposeful amphibian introductions include their use as biocontrol agents and culinary ambitions (Storer 1925; Kraus 2009). However, there are an increasing number of amphibians that are being accidentally introduced and becoming widespread (Kraus 2009). These introductions are in some ways more disconcerting because they may be the most difficult to prevent in the future.

There are 19 nonnative amphibians that …

Potential Secondary Poisoning Risks To Non-Targets From A Sodium Nitrite Toxic Bait For Invasive Wild Pigs, Nathan P. Snow, Justin A. Foster, Eric H. Vannatta, Katherine E. Horak, Simon T. Humphrys, Linton D. Staples, David G. Hewitt, Kurt C. Vercauteren

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

BACKGROUND: An acute and orally delivered toxic bait containing micro-encapsulated sodium nitrite (MESN), is under development to provide a novel and humane technology to help curtail damage caused by invasive wild pigs (Sus scrofa). We evaluated potential secondary risks for non-target species by: testing whether four different types of micro-encapsulation coatings could reduce vomiting by invasive wild pigs, testing the levels of residual sodium nitrite (SN) in tissues of invasive wild pigs, testing the environmental persistence of SN in vomitus, and conducting a risk assessment for scavengers.

RESULTS: Micro-encapsulation coatings did not affect the frequency of …

Assessing The Utility Of Metabarcoding For Diet Analyses Of The Omnivorous Wild Pig (Sus Scrofa), Michael S. Robeson Ii, Kamil Khanipov, George Golovko, Samantha M. Wisely, Michael D. White, Michael J. Bodenchuck, Timothy J. Smyser, Yuriy Fofanov, Noah Fierer, Antoinette J. Piaggio

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are an invasive species descended from both domestic swine and Eurasian wild boar that was introduced to North America during the early 1500s. Wild pigs have since become the most abundant free-ranging exotic ungulate in the United States. Large and ever-increasing populations of wild pigs negatively impact agriculture, sport hunting, and native ecosystems with costs estimated to exceed $1.5 billion/ year within the United States. Wild pigs are recognized as generalist feeders, able to exploit a broad array of locally available food resources, yet their feeding behaviors remain poorly understood as partially digested material …

Evaluation Of The Palatability And Toxicity Of Candidate Baits And Toxicants For Mongooses (Herpestes Auropunctatus), Robert T. Sugihara, William C. Pitt, Are R. Berentsen, Cynthia G. Payne

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) is an invasive pest species responsible for damage to native avian, reptile, and amphibian species on Hawaii, Croatia, Mauritius, and several Caribbean Islands, among other regions.Mongoose control has been pursued through a variety of means, with varying success. One toxicant, diphacinone, has been shown to be effective in mongooses and is co-labeled in a rodenticide bait for mongoose control in Hawaii; however, preliminary observations indicate low performance as a mongoose toxicant due likely to poor consumption. We evaluated the efficacy and palatability of 10 commercial rodenticide baits, technical diphacinone powder, and two …

Clinicopathologic Features Of Infection With Novel Brucella Organisms In Captive Waxy Tree Frogs (Phyllomedusa Sauvagii) And Colorado River Toads (Incilius Alvarius), Kelly E. Helmick, Michael M. Garner, Jack Rhyan, Daniel Bradway

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Two novel and distinct Brucella strains were recovered from 5 of 10 adult, sex undetermined, captive waxy tree frogs (Phyllomedusa sauvagii) and two of five adult, sex undetermined, captive Colorado river toads (Incilius alvarius) held in a zoologic collection with clinical and pathologic findings of bacterial disease. These amphibians originated from three separate private breeding facilities over several years and exhibited disease 9–49 mo following release from quarantine. Common presenting signs were vague but included focal abscessation, weight loss, change in coloration, anorexia, and decreased perching. Two waxy tree frogs and one Colorado river toad recovered …

Quantifying Site-Level Usage And Certainty Of Absence For An Invasive Species Through Occupancy Analysis Of Camera-Trap Data, Amy J. Davis, Ryan Mccreary, Jeremiah Psiropoulos, Gary Brennan, Terry Cox, Andrew Partin, Kim M. Pepin

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Copyright Springer International Publishing

This document is a U.S. government work and is not subject to copyright in the United States.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-017-1579-x

A Review Of African Swine Fever And The Potential For Introduction Into The United States And The Possibility Of Subsequent Establishment In Feral Swine And Native Ticks, Vienna R. Brown, Sarah N. Bevins

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

African swine fever (ASF) is caused by African swine fever virus (ASFV), which can cause substantial morbidity and mortality events in swine. The virus can be transmitted via direct and indirect contacts with infected swine, their products, or competent vector species, especially Ornithodoros ticks. Africa and much of Eastern Europe are endemic for ASF; a viral introduction to countries that are currently ASF free could have severe economic consequences due to the loss of production from infected animals and the trade restrictions that would likely be imposed as a result of an outbreak. We identified vulnerabilities that could lead to …

Estimating Interspecific Economic Risk Of Bird Strikes With Aircraft, Travis L. Devault, Bradley F. Blackwell, Thomas W. Seamans, Michael J. Begier, Jason D. Kougher, Jenny E. Washburn, Phyllis R. Miller, Richard A. Dolbeer

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The International Civil Aviation Organization promotes prioritization of wildlife management on airports, among other safety issues, by emphasizing the risk of wildlife–aircraft collisions (strikes). In its basic form, strike risk comprises a frequency component (i.e., how often strikes occur) and a severity component reflecting the cost of the incident. However, there is no widely accepted formula for estimating strike risk. Our goal was to develop a probabilistic risk metric that is adaptable for airports to use. Our specific objectives were to 1) update species-specific, relative hazard scores (i.e., the likelihood of aircraft damage or effect on flight when strikes occur) …

Foraging Behavior Of Red-Winged Blackbirds (Agelaius Phoeniceus) On Sunflower (Helianthus Annuus) With Varying Coverage Of Anthraquinone-Based Repellent, Brandon K. Kaiser, Mike Ostlie, Page E. Klug

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Animals attempt to maximize foraging efforts by making strategic foraging decisions. Foraging efforts can be influenced by chemically defended food. Food resources that are chemically defended force foragers to balance the nutritional gain with the toxic costs of foraging on a defended food resource. Chemical defense, in this case sunflower treated with chemical repellent, may be capable of deterring birds from foraging on treated crops. Blackbirds (Icteridae) cause significant damage to sunflower (Helianthus annuus) with damage estimates of $3.5 million annually in the Prairie Pothole Region of North Dakota, the largest sunflower producing state. Chemical repellents …

Invasive Rats (Rattus Sp.), But Not Always Mice (Mus Musculus), Are Ubiquitous At All Elevations And Habitats Within The Caribbean National Forest, Puerto Rico, Aaron B. Shiels, Gabriela E. Ramirez De Arellano

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Invasive rodents, particularly rats (Rattus spp.), occupy >80% of the world’s islands and are among the greatest threats to native biodiversity and agriculture on islands. At the time of their introduction in the 1500s, there was at least 1 native rat species in Puerto Rico. Today there are no native rodents remaining in Puerto Rico, but R. norvegicus (Norway Rat) may be found in urban settings, and R. rattus (Black Rat) are the most common rat across the island including within natural areas, and invasive Mus musculus (House Mouse) may also be found in urban and non-urban habitats. The …

Cytokine Contributions To Alterations Of The Volatile Metabolome Induced By Inflammation, Patrick Millet, Maryanne Opiekun, Talia Martin, Gary K. Beauchamp, Bruce A. Kimball

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Several studies demonstrate that inflammation affects body odor. Volatile signals associated with inflammation induced by pyrogens like LPS are detectable both by conspecifics and chemical analyses. However, little is known about the mechanisms which translate detection of a foreign molecule or pathogen into a unique body odor, or even how unique that odor may be. Here, we utilized C57BL/6J trained mice to identify the odor of LPS-treated conspecifics to investigate potential pathways between LPS-induced inflammation and changes in body odor, as represented by changes in urine odor. We hypothesized that the change in volatile metabolites could be caused directly by …

Spatial Processes Decouple Management From Objectives In A Heterogeneous Landscape: Predator Control As A Case Study, Peter J. Mahoney, Julie K. Young, Kent R. Hersey, Randy T. Larsen, Brock R. Mcmillan, David C. Stoner

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Predator control is often implemented with the intent of disrupting top-down regulation in sensitive prey populations. However, ambiguity surrounding the efficacy of predator management, as well as the strength of top-down effects of predators in general, is often exacerbated by the spatially implicit analytical approaches used in assessing data with explicit spatial structure. Here, we highlight the importance of considering spatial context in the case of a predator control study in south-central Utah. We assessed the spatial match between aerial removal risk in coyotes (Canis latrans) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) resource selection during parturition using …

Invasion Ecology Of Wild Pigs (Sus Scrofa) In Florida, Usa: The Role Of Humans In The Expansion And Colonization Of An Invasive Wild Ungulate, Felipe A. Hernandez, Brandon M. Parker, Cortney L. Pylant, Timothy J. Smyser, Antoinette J. Piaggio, Stacey L. Lance, Michael P. Milleson, James D. Austin, Samantha M. Wisely

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are the most widely distributed invasive wild ungulate in the United States, yet the factors that influence wild pig dispersal and colonization at the regional level are poorly understood. Our objective was to use a population genetic approach to describe patterns of dispersal and colonization among populations to gain a greater understanding of the invasion process contributing to the expansion of this species. We used 52 microsatellite loci to produce individual genotypes for 482 swine sampled at 39 locations between 2014 and 2016. Our data revealed the existence of genetically distinct subpopulations (F …

Objectives And Integrated Approaches For The Control Of Brown Tree Snakes: An Updated Overview, Richard M. Engeman, Aaron B. Shiels, Craig S. Clark

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

After its inadvertent introduction to Guam, the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis, BTS) extirpated most of the island's native terrestrial vertebrates, presented a health hazard to small children, and had considerable economic ramifications. Management of BTS is aimed at a number of objectives, the foremost of which has been to deter its dispersal from Guam to other locations. Further objectives include reclaiming areas on Guam as snake-free for reintroduction of native wildlife, to protect small sensitive sites on Guam from BTS intrusion (e.g, power stations, bird nesting sites), to contain and capture stowaway BTS incoming to vulnerable destinations, …

Effects Of Immunization Against Bone Morphogenetic Protein-15 And Growth Differentiation Factor-9 On Ovarian Function In Mares, Kelli A. Davis, Kristin M. Klohonatz, Darcy S.O. Mora, Hannah M. Twenter, Peter E. Graham, Pablo Pinedo, Douglas C. Eckery, Jason E. Bruemmer

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Currently there is no contraceptive vaccine that can cause permanent sterility in mares. This study investigates the effect of vaccination against oocyte-specific growth factors, Bone Morphogenetic Protein 15 (BMP-15) and Growth Differentiation Factor 9 (GDF-9), on ovarian function of mares. It was hypothesized that immunization against these growth factors would prevent ovulation and/or accelerate depletion of the oocyte reserve. For this study, 30 mares were randomly assigned to three groups (n=10/group) and vaccinated with BMP-15 or GDF-9 peptides conjugated to KLH and adjuvant, or a control of phosphate buffered saline and adjuvant. Horses received vaccinations at weeks 0, …

The Elusive Search For An Effective Repellent Against Voles: An Assessment Of Anthraquinone For Citrus Crops, Roger A. Baldwin, Ryan Meinerz, Gary W. Witmer, Scott J. Werner

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Vole (Cricetidae) girdling of tree trunks is a common form of damage experienced by tree and vine growers throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere. Management programs that effectively incorporate chemical repellents and vegetation management would be of substantial assistance to growers that experience such damage. Anthraquinone has proven effective as a repellent against voles in lab trials, yet controlled field tests of combined anthraquinone and vegetation management programs are lacking. Therefore, we established a mesocosm-based study in central California, USA, to test the efficacy of anthraquinone and vegetation management for reducing girdling damage caused by California voles Microtus californicus to …

Evidence Of Two Cocirculating Canine Distemper Virus Strains In Mesocarnivores From Northern Colorado, Usa, Darren J. Wostenberg, Nikki Walker, Karen A. Fox, Terry R. Spraker, Antoinette J. Piaggio, Amy Gilbert

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a highly contagious pathogen that principally infects wildlife and domestic carnivores. Peridomestic species such as raccoons (Procyon lotor) experience outbreaks with high mortality. Clinical signs of infection include anorexia, fever, respiratory infection, and neurologic complications. Although not zoonotic, CDV poses a high risk to unvaccinated domestic animals and the conservation of endangered species. During 2013–16, we opportunistically collected wild and domestic carnivore specimens through a rabies surveillance program in northern Colorado, US. Brainstem and cerebellar tissue samples were independently tested for rabies and CDV by fluorescent antibody test. We tested a total of …

Island Fox Spatial Ecology And Implications For Management Of Disease, Jessica R. Resnik, William F. Andelt, Thomas R. Stanley, Nathan P. Snow

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Disease, predation, and genetic isolation resulted in 4 of 6 island fox (Urocyon littoralis) subspecies being listed as endangered in 2004. Potential for disease outbreaks continues to pose a major threat to the persistence of these isolated, endemic populations. We examined how roads influence the spatial ecology of San Clemente Island foxes (U. l. clementae), particularly in regard to spread of disease, to provide management recommendations for preventing or minimizing a disease outbreak on San Clemente Island, California, USA. Home range areas (x=0.75 km²) and core areas (x=0.19 km²) of foxes on …

Civil Airports From A Landscape Perspective: A Multi-Scale Approach With Implications For Reducing Bird Strikes, Morgan B. Pfeiffer, Jason D. Kougher, Travis L. Devault

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Collisions between birds and aircraft are a global problem that jeopardizes human safety and causes economic losses. Although landscape features have been suggested as one of a number of factors contributing to bird strikes, no evidence exists to support this suggestion. We investigated the effects of landscape structure on the adverse effect (AE) bird strike rate at 98 civil airports in the United States. The number of reported AE bird strikes was standardized by air carrier movements between 2009 and 2015. Land use structure and composition were quantified within 3, 8, and 13 km radii extents from airports. We predicted …

Pituophis Catenifer Sayi (Bullsnake). Agonistic Mobbing Attack., James J. Delutes Iii, Richard M. Engeman

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Snakes have been observed as recipients of agonistic, non-predatory attacks by individuals from other taxa towards a presumed enemy (e.g., Engeman et al. 2009. Herpetol. Rev. 40:84–85; Kaiser et. al. 2013. Herpetol. Rev. 44:329). Mobbing, an attack involving multiple individuals, has been observed against many taxa of vertebrate predators (e.g., Altmann 1956. Condor 58:241–253; Owings and Coss 1977. Behaviour 62:50–69). Snakes appear to be frequent targets for this behavior and a variety of taxa have been documented to mob snakes (e.g., Owings and Coss 1976, op. cit.). Birds, probably more than any other taxa, have been commonly observed to …

Variation In Inbreeding Rates Across The Range Of Northern Spotted Owls (Strix Occidentalis Caurina): Insights From Over 30 Years Of Monitoring Data, Mark P. Miller, Susan M. Haig, Eric D. Forsman, Robert G. Anthony, Lowell Diller, Katie M. Dugger, Alan B. Franklin, Tracy L. Fleming, Scott Gremel, Damon B. Lesmeister, Mark Higley, Dale R. Herter, Stan G. Sovern

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Inbreeding has been difficult to quantify in wild populations because of incomplete parentage information. We applied and extended a recently developed framework for addressing this problem to infer inbreeding rates in Northern Spotted Owls (Strix occidentalis caurina) across the Pacific Northwest, USA. Using pedigrees from 14,187 Northern Spotted Owls, we inferred inbreeding rates for 14 types of matings among relatives that produce pedigree inbreeding coefficients of F=0.25 or F=0.125. Inbreeding was most common in the Washington Cascades, where an estimated 15% of individuals are inbred. Inbreeding was lowest in western Oregon (3.5%) and northern California (2.7%), …

Behavioral And Spatial Responses Of Captive Coyotes To Human Activity, Jeffrey T. Schultz, Julie K. Young

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Human interactions can alter an animal’s behavior and utilization of its surroundings, and how this impacts the welfare of some captive wild animals is of growing concern. Structural enrichment shelters offer weather protection, reprieve space from other animals or humans, or resting space. Perimeter or open space may be important during periods of activity, such as foraging or play. This study addressed the effects of human activity on coyote behavioral budgeting and enclosure utilization. We predicted that human activity would affect coyote behavior and spatial utilization of enclosure space. Specifically, we hypothesized that human activity would prompt vigilant and other …

A Conceptual Model For The Integration Of Social And Ecological Information To Understand Human-Wildlife Interactions, Stacy A. Lischka, Tara L. Teel, Heather E. Johnson, Sarah E. Reed, Stewart Breck, Andrew Don Carlos, Kevin R. Crooks

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

There is growing recognition that interdisciplinary approaches that account for both ecological and social processes are necessary to successfully address human-wildlife interactions. However, such approaches are hindered by challenges in aligning data types, communicating across disciplines, and applying social science information to conservation actions. To meet these challenges, we propose a conceptual model that adopts a social-ecological systems approach and integrates social and ecological theory to identify the multiple, nested levels of influence on both human and animal behavior. By accounting for a diverse array of influences and feedback mechanisms between social and ecological systems, this model fulfills a need …

Seasonal Variation In Preference Dictates Space Use In An Invasive Generalist, Kelsey E. Paolini, Bronson K. Strickland, Jessica L. Tegt, Kurt C. Vercauteren, Garrett M. Street

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The spatiotemporal distribution of resources is a critical component of realized animal distributions.

In agricultural landscapes, space use by generalist consumers is influenced by ephemeral resource availability that may produce behavioral differences across agricultural seasons, resulting in economic and production consequences and increased human-wildlife conflict. Our objective was to assess changes in habitat selection across seasons in an invasive generalist omnivore (feral pigs, Sus scrofa). Hypothesizing that pig space use is primarily driven by forage availability, we predicted strong selection for the most nutritionally beneficial crops and resource types as agricultural seasons progressed. We deployed GPS collars on 13 …

Habitat Type And Structure Affect Trap Capture Success Of An Invasive Snake Across Variable Densities, Melia G. Nafus, Amy A. Yackel Adams, Page E. Klug, Gordon H. Rodda

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Detection represents an important limitation of accurately estimating population size, abundance, and habitat suitability for wildlife, which can be especially true for cryptic animals. Moreover, for reptiles, juveniles are often less likely to be detected than later life stages. In the case of invasive species, preventing false negatives early in the invasion process can be critical for improving outcomes of control measures. We evaluated habitat structure in relation to catch per unit effort (CPUE) and mean size of trapped invasive brown treesnakes (Boiga irregularis) on Guam. We used a 5-ha enclosure containing a known, closed population of brown treesnakes to …

Impacts Of Biomass Production At Civil Airports On Grassland Bird Conservation And Aviation Strike Risk, Tara J. Conkling, Jerrold L. Belant, Travis L. Devault, James A. Martin

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Growing concerns about climate change, foreign oil dependency, and environmental quality have fostered interest in perennial native grasses (e.g., switchgrass [Panicum virgatum]) for bioenergy production while also maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem function. However, biomass cultivation in marginal landscapes such as airport grasslands may have detrimental effects on aviation safety as well as conservation efforts for grassland birds. In 2011–2013, we investigated effects of vegetation composition and harvest frequency on seasonal species richness and habitat use of grassland birds and modeled relative abundance, aviation risk, and conservation value of birds associated with biomass crops. Avian relative abundance was greater …

Experimental Tests Of Nonsurgical Reproductive Inhibitors To Prevent Coyote Reproduction, Julie K. Young, Marjorie J. Macgregor, Eric M. Gese, Douglas C. Eckery

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Sterilization is an effective nonlethal tool to reduce livestock depredation by coyotes (Canis latrans) because adults without pups to provision are less likely to kill livestock. Surgical sterilization is costly and invasive, so identifying nonsurgical methods for canids that allow wide-scale application is important. We conducted a preliminary assessment of 2 types of reproductive inhibitors (gonadotropin releasing hormone [GnRH] vaccine and deslorelin, a GnRH agonist) on coyote reproductive capabilities. We treated captive coyotes with a GnRH vaccine (n = 6 males, n = 6 females) or deslorelin (n = 6 males), measured number of litters and …

Genetic Evidence Supports Sporadic And Independent Introductions Of Subtype H5 Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza A Viruses From Wild Birds To Domestic Poultry In North America, Lei Li, Andrew S. Bowman, Thomas J. Deliberto, Mary L. Killian, Scott Krauss, Jacqueline M. Nolting, Mia Kim Torchetti, Andrew M. Ramey, Andrew B. Reeves, David E. Stallknecht, Richard J. Webby, Xiu-Feng Wan

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Wild-bird origin influenza A viruses (IAVs or avian influenza) have led to sporadic outbreaks among domestic poultry in the United States and Canada, resulting in economic losses through the implementation of costly containment practices and destruction of birds. We used evolutionary analyses of virus sequence data to determine that 78 H5 low-pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs) isolated from domestic poultry in the United States and Canada during 2001 to 2017 resulted from 18 independent virus introductions from wild birds. Within the wild-bird reservoir, the hemagglutinin gene segments of H5 LPAIVs exist primarily as two cocirculating genetic sublineages, and our findings …

Feral Swine Sus Scrofa: A New Threat To The Remaining Breeding Wetlands Of The Vulnerable Reticulated Flatwoods Salamander Ambystoma Bishopi, Kelly C. Jones, Thomas A. Gorman, Brandon K. Rincon, John Allen, Carola A. Haas, Richard M. Engeman

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Feral swine Sus scrofa have been implicated as a major threat to sensitive habitats and ecosystems as well as threatened wildlife. Nevertheless, direct and indirect impacts on threatened species (especially small, fossorial species) are not well documented. The decline of the U.S. federally endangered reticulated flatwoods salamander Ambystoma bishopi, categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, has been rapid and there are few remaining breeding locations for this species. The flatwoods salamander depends on complex herbaceous vegetation in all life stages, including eggs, larvae and adults. Historically sets of hog tracks have been observed only occasionally in the …