Digital Commons Network^™

Family Cluster Of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, James E. Childs, Timothy F. Jones, Allen S. Craig, Christopher D. Paddock, Don B. Mckechnie, Sherif R. Zaki, William Schaffner

Zoonotics and Wildlife Disease: Publications

Soon after a patient from Tennessee died of Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF), several family members developed symptoms suggestive of the disease and were treated presumptively for RMSF. Fifty-four persons visiting the index patient's home were interviewed; serum samples were collected from 35. Three additional cases of RMSF were confirmed, all of which occurred in firstdegree relatives. Time spent at the family home and going into the surrounding woods were significantly associated with developing antibodies to Rickettsia rickettsii. Ticks were collected and examined for rickettsiae by polymerase chain reaction analysis. Because hyperendemic foci and family clusters of RMSF can …

Molecular Cloning And Characterization Of The Ehrlichia Chaffeensis Variable-Length Pcr Target: An Antigen-Expressing Gene That Exhibits Interstrain Variation, John W. Sumner, James E. Childs, Christopher D. Paddock

Zoonotics and Wildlife Disease: Publications

A clone expressing an immunoreactive protein with an apparent molecular mass of 44 kDa was selected from an Ehrlichia chaffeensis Arkansas genomic library by probing with anti-E. chaffeensis hyperimmune mouse ascitic fluid. Nucleotide sequencing revealed an open reading frame (ORF) capable of encoding a 198-aminoacid polypeptide. The ORF contained four imperfect, direct, tandem 90-bp repeats. The nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences did not show close homologies to entries in the molecular databases. PCR with primers whose sequences matched the sequences flanking the ORF was performed with DNA samples extracted from cell cultures infected with nine different isolates of E. …

Serologic Testing For Human Granulocytic Ehrlichiosis At A National Referral Center, James A. Comer, William L. Nicholson, James G. Olson, James E. Childs

Zoonotics and Wildlife Disease: Publications

An indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) was used to identify patients with antibodies reactive to the human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE) agent. Serum samples collected from clinically ill individuals were submitted to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention by physicians via state health departments from throughout the United States and tested against a panel of ehrlichial and rickettsial pathogens. Antibodies reactive to the HGE agent were detected in 142 (8.9%) of 1,602 individuals tested. There were 19 confirmed and 59 probable (n = 78) cases of HGE as defined by seroconversion or a fourfold or higher titer to the HGE agent …

Bacterial Toxins: Friends Or Foes?, Clare K. Schmitt, Karen C. Meysick, Alison D. O'Brien

Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences

Many emerging and reemerging bacterial pathogens synthesize toxins that serve as primary virulence factors. We highlight seven bacterial toxins produced by well-established or newly emergent pathogenic microbes. These toxins, which affect eukaryotic cells by a variety of means, include Staphylococcus aureus α-toxin, Shiga toxin, cytotoxic necrotizing factor type 1, Escherichia coli heat-stable toxin, botulinum and tetanus neurotoxins, and S. aureus toxic-shock syndrome toxin. For each, we discuss the information available on its synthesis and structure, mode of action, and contribution to virulence. We also review the role certain toxins have played in unraveling signal pathways in eukaryotic cells and summarize …

Monitoring Of Transmission Of Tuberculosis Between Wild Boars And Cattle: Genotypical Analysis Of Strains By Molecular Epidemiology Techniques, Andrea Serraino, Giulia Marchetti, Valeria Sanguinetti, Maria Cristina Rossi, Renato Giulio Zanoni, Lidia Catozzi, Alessandra Bandera, Walter Dini, Walter Mignone, Fabio Franzetti, Andrea Gori

Michigan Bovine Tuberculosis Bibliography and Database

An epidemiological survey for the monitoring of bovine tuberculosis transmission was carried out in western Liguria, a region in northern Italy. Fifteen Mycobacterium bovis strains were isolated from 63 wild boar samples (62 from mandibular lymph nodes and 1 from a liver specimen). Sixteen mediastinal lymph nodes of 16 head of cattle were collected, and 15 Mycobacterium bovis strains were subsequently cultured. All M. bovisstrains isolated from cattle and wild boars were genotyped by spoligotyping and by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis with the IS6110 and IS1081 probes. All M. bovis strains showed the typical spoligotype characterized by …

Veterinary And Biomedical Sciences: 1999 Annual Report

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Information and History

VBMS Personnel
VBMS Postdoctoral Research Associates
Awards and Recognition
Committee Assignments
Teaching Program
Graduate Program
Great Plains Veterinary Educational Center (GPVEC)
Research Program
Extension Program
Nebraska Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory Systems (NVDLS)
Grants
Publications
Presentations
Selected Committees, Editorial and Other Appointments
Departmental Budget Summaries
Nebraska Agricultural Statistics
Appendix

Preventing Hepatitis B And Hepatitis C Virus Infections In End-Stage Renal Disease Patients: Back To Basics, Scott Kellerman, Miriam Alter

United States Public Health Resources

In this issue of HEPATOLOGY, Mathurin et al. report the results of a 10-year retrospective study of kidney transplant recipients that compared rates of patient and graft survival among patients with and without chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection.¹ Following this cohort of patients at intervals of 5 and 10 years, the investigators found a statistically significant decrease in survival in the HBV-infected group at both 5 and 10 years and a similar decrease at 10 years in the HCV-infected group. The findings of this study underscore the importance of preventing these infections in …

Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre Newsletter, Volume 6-2, Winter 1999

Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre: Newsletters and Publications

New Staff Member - Quebec Regional Centre International Cooperation in Wildlife Forensics Road Salt and Small Birds (request for specimens) West Nile Virus and other Zoonotic Arboviruses in North America Canada-wide epidemic of winter tick in moose Mortality among great black-backed and herring gulls in the Maritime provinces Intraspecific killing in common loons Poxvirus and multiple tumors in a grey squirrel Circovirus infection in a rock dove Fatal Sphaeridiotrema sp infection in lesser scaup - part II Botulism type E in fish-eating birds, Lake Erie and Lake Huron Gull mortality - Kitchener Pneumonia and Septicemia in Dall's sheep, Mackenzie Mountains, …

Observations On Animal And Human Health During The Outbreak Of Mycobacterium Bovis In Game Farm Wapiti In Alberta, P. Nick Nation, E. Anne Fanning, H. Bim Hopf, Terry L. Church

Michigan Bovine Tuberculosis Bibliography and Database

This report describes and discusses the history, clinical, pathologic, epidemiologic, and human health aspects of an outbreak of Mycobacterium bovis infection in domestic wapiti in Alberta between 1990 and 1993, shortly after legislative changes allowing game farming. The extent and seriousness of the outbreak of M. bovis in wapiti in Alberta was not fully known at its onset. The clinical findings in the first recognized infected wapiti are presented and the postmortem records for the herd in which the animal resided are summarized. Epidemiologic findings from the subsequent field investigation are reviewed, the results of recognition and investigation of human …

A Comparison Of Wildlife Control And Cattle Vaccination As Methods For The Control Of Bovine Tuberculosis, R. R. Kao, M. G. Roberts

Michigan Bovine Tuberculosis Bibliography and Database

The Australian brushtail possum is the major source of infection for new cases of bovine tuberculosis in cattle in New Zealand. Using hypothetical values for the cost of putative cattle and possum Tb vaccines, the relative efforts required to eradicate Tb in cattle using possum culling, possum vaccination or cattle vaccination are compared. For realistic assumed costs for 1080 poison bait, possum culling is found to be a cost-effective strategy compared to cattle vaccination if the required control area is below 13 ha per cattle herd, while possum vaccination is cost-effective for control areas of less than 3 ha per …

The Search For Unrecognized Pathogens, David A. Relman

United States Department of Veterans Affairs: Publications

The distribution and diversity of microorganisms in the world are far greater than have been previously appreciated. Molecular, cultivation independent methods have played a key role in this insight. To what extent do humans remain ignorant of microbial diversity within the human body and the settings in which microorganisms cause human disease? In addition to implicating microbial agents in nontraditional infectious diseases, the use of methods such as broad-range polymerase chain reaction, representational difference analysis, expression library screening, and host gene expression profiling may force a reassessment of the concepts of microbial disease causation.

Demonstration Of Tritrichomonas Foetus In The External Genitalia And Of Specific Antibodies In Preputial Secretions Of Naturally Infected Bulls, J. C. Rhyan, K. L. Wilson, B. Wagner, M. L. Anderson, R. H. Bondurant, D. E. Burgess, G. K. Mutwiri, L. B. Corbeil

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Portions of penis and prepuce were collected from 24 bulls with current or recent Tritrichomonas foetus infection. Epididymides were collected from seven of the bulls, and seminal vesicles and prostate were collected from four. Following immunohistochemical staining with two monoclonal antibodies (34.7C4.4 and TF1.15) prepared against T. foetus surface antigens, trichomonads were identified in sections from 15 of the bulls. Organisms were most often located in penile crypts in the midshaft and caudal regions and less often in preputial crypts. Trichomonads were not observed in sections from other genitalia or in subepithelial tissue. T. foetus antigen, however, was present in …

Plasmd Bearing A Cdna Copy Of The Genome Of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus, Chimeric Derivatives Thereof, And Method Of Producing An Infectious Bovine Wral Darrheavirus Using Sad Plasmid, Ruben O. Donis, Ventzislav B. Vassilev

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

A plasmid bearing a cDNA copy of the genome of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), chimeric derivatives of the plasmid and a method of producing an infectious bovine viral diarrhea virus using the plasmid are disclosed. The invention relates to a plasmid DNA molecule that replicates easily in E. coli and contains a sufficient portion of the genome of BVDV, cloned as cDNA, to be a suitable template to produce RNA in vitro which, upon transfection into bovine cells, gives rise to infectious BVDV. The BVDV created by the process of the invention can be engineered for use as a …

Characterization Of The Jembrana Disease Virus Tat Gene And The Cis- And Trans-Regulatory Elements In Its Long Terminal Repeats, Hexin Chen, Graham Wilcox, Gde Kertayadnya, Charles Wood

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Jembrana disease virus (JDV) is a newly identified bovine lentivirus that is closely related to the bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV). JDV contains a tat gene, encoded by two exons, which has potent transactivation activity. Cotransfection of the JDV tat expression plasmid with the JDV promoter chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) construct pJDV-U3R resulted in a substantial increase in the level of CAT mRNA transcribed from the JDV long terminal repeat (LTR) and a dramatic increase in the CAT protein level. Deletion analysis of the LTR sequences showed that sequences spanning nucleotides 268 to 153, including the TATA box and the predicted first …

In Situ Hybridization For The Detection And Localization Of Swine Chlamydia Trachomatis, C. Chae, D.-S. Cheon, D. Kwon, O. Kim, B. Kim, J. Suh, D. G. Rogers, K. D. E. Everett, A. A. Anderson

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Gnotobiotic piglets were inoculated intralaryngeally with swine Chlamydia trachomatis strain R33 or orally with swine C. trachmatis strain R27. Archived formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues from piglets euthanatized 4–7 days postinoculation were examined by in situ hybridization for C. trachomatis nucleic acid using a nonradioactive digoxigenin-labeled DNA probes that targeted specific ribosomal RNA or omp1 mRNA molecules of the swine C. trachomatis strains. Positive hybridization signals were detected in bronchial epithelial cells, bronchiolar epithelial cells, pneumocytes, alveolar and interstitial macrophages, and jejunal and ileal enterocytes. Chlamydia-infected cells had a strong signal that was confined to the intracytoplasmic inclusions. Positive hybridization signals were …

Bacterial Growth State Distinguished By Single-Cell Protein Profiling: Does Chlorination Kill Coliforms In Municipal Effluent?, David Rockabrand, Teresa Austin, Robyn Kaiser, Paul H. Blum

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Municipal effluent is the largest reservoir of human enteric bacteria. Its public health significance, however,

depends upon the physiological status of the wastewater bacterial community. A novel immunofluorescence

assay was developed and used to examine the bacterial growth state during wastewater disinfection. Quantitative

levels of three highly conserved cytosolic proteins (DnaK, Dps, and Fis) were determined by using

enterobacterium-specific antibody fluorochrome-coupled probes. Enterobacterial Fis homologs were abundant

in growing cells and nearly undetectable in stationary-phase cells. In contrast, enterobacterial Dps homologs

were abundant in stationary-phase cells but virtually undetectable in growing cells. The range of variation in

the abundance of …

Absence Of Tuberculosis In Free-Ranging Deer In Nebraska, David J. Steffen, David W. Oates, Mauritz C. Sterner, Vickie L. Cooper

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

Lymph nodes from 271 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in Nebraska (USA) were examined microscopically for tuberculoid lesions. Lymph nodes lesions in at least one node were found in 12 deer. Lesions were examined with Zeihl-Neelson acid fast stains and by polymerase chain reactions using M. bovis specific probes. No evidence of tuberculosis was found. The small granulomatous lesions were likely caused by other bacteria.

Meningeal Worm In Free-Ranging Deer In Nebraska, David W, Oates, Mauritz C. Sterner, David J. Steffen

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

The meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) was found in 22 (7%) of 300 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (257 adults, 43 fawns) examined from Nebraska (USA) during November 1996. None of 53 mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) (47 adults and 6 fawns) examined were infected. Twenty-two white-tailed deer from 18 counties in eastern Nebraska were infected with Parelaphostrongylus tenuis. This is the first record of P. tenuis in white-tailed deer from this state.

Evolutionary Relationships Among The Protostrongylidae (Nematoda: Metastrongyloidea) As Inferred From Morphological Characters, With Consideration Of Parasite-Host Coevolution, Ramon A. Carreno, Eric P. Hoberg

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

The phylogeny of nematodes in the family Protostrongylidae (Nematoda: Metastrongyloidea) was reconstructed by cladistic analysis of 28 binary and multistate characters derived from comparative morphology. Analyses were hierarchical, and examined (1) relationships among genera, including 13 ingroup taxa and Metastrongylidae as an outgroup (single tree, 78 steps, consistency index [CI]=0.705); and (2) relationships among genera and species groups including 21 ingroup taxa and Metastrongylus apri as an outgroup (single tree, 76 steps, CI=0.582). In the species-level tree, Protostrongylidae was divided into 2 major clades, one containing the subfamilies Muelleriinae (including the recently described Umingmakstrongylus pallikuukensis) Elaphostrongylinae, and the Varestrongylinae …

Three New Species Of Nothacrobeles (Nemata: Cephalobidae) From The Mojave Desert, California, I. T. De Ley, P. De Ley, J. G. Baldwin, M. Mundo-Ocampo, Steven A. Nadler

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

Three new species of Nothacrobeles are described from localities in the Mojave Desert, southern California. Nothacrobeles triniglarus n. sp. is characterized by the presence of a long post-vulval sac and three tubular adoral projections. Both N. spatulatus n. sp. and N. nanocorpus n. sp. are smaller than any other known species within the genus. Nothacrobeles spatulatus n. sp. has labial probolae that are short and spatulate without a basal ridge, whereas those of N. nanocorpus n. sp. are flattened and plate-like. Furthermore, N. nanocorpus n. sp. is unique by its extremely short esophageal corpus (less than 25 μm long in …

Experimental Infections Of Muskoxen (Ovibos Moschatus) And Domestic Sheep With Umingmakstrongylus Pallikuukensis (Nematoda: Protostrongylidae): Parasite Development, Population Structure, And Pathology, Susan J. Kutz, Eric P. Hoberg, Lydden Polley

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

Three captive muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) were successfully infected with third-stage larvae of Umingmakstrongylus pallikuukensis digested or emerged from the slugs Deroceras reticulatum and D. laeve, for the first time completing the life cycle of this parasite under experimental conditions. The course of parasite development and patency was followed for 26 months post infection (p.i.) using fecal examinations and radiography. The prepatent periods in two of the muskoxen were 91 and 95 days and the patent period in one extended for 23 months. Larval production peaked 13–14 months p.i. On postmortem of two of the muskoxen at months …

Acanthocephala Of Cichlids (Pisces) In Lake Malawi, Africa, With A Description Of Acanthogyrus (Acanthosentis} Malawiensis Sp. N. (Quadrigyridae) From Labeo Cylindricus Peters, 1852 (Cyprinidae), Omar M. Amin, Sherman S. Hendrix

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

Two species of acanthocephalans are reported from fishes collected during the summer of 1996 in the southeast arm of Lake Malawi (Lake Nyasa), East Africa. The common Acanthogyrus (Acanthosentis) tilapiae (Baylis, 1948) had infected 18 cichlid and 1 bagrid host species (all new host records) netted by divers wearing scuba gear around Harbor Island or caught by hook and line in deep water. The specimens of this parasite were some of the smallest ever reported for that species. Two males of a new species, Acanthogyrus (Acanthosentis) malawiensis, are described from 2 male Labeo cylindricus (Cyprinidae). This is the fifth …

Three New Species Of Eimeria From Bolivian Marsupials, S. Kimberly Heckscher, Brian A. Wickesberg, Donald Duszynski, Scott Lyell Gardner

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

Faecal samples collected from 300 Bolivian marsupials (Didelphimorphia: Didelphidae) between 1984 and 1993 were examined for coccidian parasites. Sporulated oocysts were present in the faeces of 50 (17%) marsupials representing 11 genera and 22 species. Three new species of Eimeria are described and named from six host species. One species occurred in Marmosops dorothea, Monodelphis domestica and Thylamys venustus, another in Micoureus constantiae constantiae and Micoureus constantiae budini and a third in Marmosops dorothea. A discriminant analysis performed on five quantitative oocyst measurements revealed similarities between the first and third Eimeria species because of similar sizes and …

Revisiting The Code: Clarifying Name-Bearing Types For Photomicrographs Of Protozoa, Donald W. Duszynski

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

In 1988, Bandoni and Duszynski argued that individuals involved in the taxonomy and systematics of the coccidia should become familiar with the 3rd edition of the Code of Zoological Nomenclature (Ride et aI., 1985) and tried to reiterate the importance and utility of designating some form of type specimens and archiving them in appropriate museums. Their intent was to create an awareness among biologists working with coccidia (or other protists) of the value of designating type specimens. In the decade since their admonition, bench scholars working with coccidia, and journal editors to whom they submit their work, have begun …

Six New Eimeria Species From Vespertilionid Bats From North America, Donald W. Duszynski, Damien T. Scott, Jacqee Aragon, Ashley Leach, Travis Perry

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

Twenty species of bats (Molossidae, Vespertilionidae) were collected from California, New Mexico, Oregon, South Carolina, Utah, and Baja California Norte (Mexico), and 29 of 404 (7%) animals, including Antrozous pallidus, Eptesicusfuscus, Myotis auriculus, Myotis californicus, Myotis ciliolabrum, Myotis evotis, Myotis lucifugus, Myotis thysanodes, Myotis vivesi, Myotis volans, Myotis yumanensis, and Nycticeius humeralis were infected with Eimeria spp., which represent 6 new species. Sporulated oocysts of a new species from A. pallidus are subspheroidal, 24.8 × 21.6 (22-27 × 19-24) μm with a polar granule and a large globular residuum. …

Eimeria From Bats Of Bolivia: Two New Species From Vespertilionid Bats, Donald W. Duszynski, Damien T. Scott, Xiaomin Zhao

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

Between 1985 and 1987, fecal samples were collected from 71 bats representing 14 species (Desmodontidae, Molossidae, Noctilionidae, Phyllostomidae, Vespertilionidae) from 8 localities in 3 states (Beni, Pando, Santa Cruz) in Bolivia, South America. Of these, 2 black myotid bats (Vespertilionidae), Myotis nigricans, and 1 tent-making bat (Phyllostomidae), Uroderma magnirostrum, had oocysts in their feces that represent undescribed species of Eimeria. The new species from M. nigricans (2/4, 50%) has sporulated oocysts that are subspheroidal, 18.9 × 16.9 (17-23 × 14-20) μm, without a micropyle; oocyst residuum of 6-8 spheroidal globules and 1 highly refractile polar granule are …

Calicotyle Californiensis N. Sp. And Calicotyle Urobati N. Sp. (Monogenea: Calicotylinae) From Elasmobranchs In The Gulf Of California, Stephen A. Bullard, Robin M. Overstreet

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

Two new species of Calicotyle (Monocotylidae: Calicotylinae) are described from elasmobranchs in the western Gulf of California. Calicotyle californiensis n. sp. is described from a single specimen collected from a gray smoothhound shark (Mustelus californicus, Carcharhiniformes: Triakidae). It is distinguished from its congeners by the combination of having vaginal pores opening within the intercecal space, distal regions of the vaginae twisting, proximal regions of the vaginae fusing medially to form a kidney bean-shaped structure, and a relatively long male copulatory organ recurving three times and passing between the distal penis bulb and the seminal vesicle. Calicotyle urobati n. …

Structure, Biodiversity, And Historical Biogeography Of Nematode Faunas In Holarctic Ruminants: Morphological And Molecular Diagnoses For Teladorsagia Boreoarticus N. Sp. (Nemadota: Ostertagiinae), Dimorphic Cryptic Species In Muskoxen (Ovibos Moschatus), Eric P. Hoberg, Kirsten J. Monsen, Susan Kutz, Michael S. Blouin

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

Discovery of the ostertagiine nematode Teladorsagia boreoarcticus n. sp. in muskoxen, Ovibos moschatus, from the central Canadian Arctic highlights the paucity of knowledge about the genealogical and numerical diversity of nematode faunas characteristic of artiodactyls at high latitudes across the Holarctic. Teladorsagia boreoarcticus is a dimorphic cryptic species distinguished from Teladorsagia circumcincta/Teladorsagia trifurcata in domestic sheep by a 13% divergence in the ND4 region of mitochondrial DNA, constant differences in the synlophe, and significantly longer esophageal valve, spicules, gubernaculum, and bursa. Teladorsagia boreoarcticus represents an archaic component of the North American fauna and may have a Holarctic …

Carmoviruses (Tombusviridae), Feng Qu, Thomas Jack Morris

School of Biological Sciences: Faculty Publications

Carmovirus is one of two officially recognized genera of Tombusviridae. Members of Tombusviridae all have icosahedral virions of about 30 nm in diameter with T = 3 symmetry that consists of 180 coat protein (CP) subunits of about 38- 43 kDa and a single-stranded (ss) RNA genome ranging in size from 4.0 to 4.7 kb. Carmoviruses share recognizable sequence similarity in both the polymerase and structural genes with members of the other genus, Tombusvirus. Sequence comparisons and phylogenetic analysis of these genes support the view that the genera are distinct but closely related. In addition, the genome organization of the …

The Scope Of Intentional Injury Under Kawaauhau V. Geiger, 118 S. Ct. 974 (1998), Chad A. Cutshall

Nebraska Law Review

This Note examine the Supreme Court's holding in Kawaauhau v. Geiger and the proper scope to be given to the term "intent" as used by the Court. First, this Note presents a history of the willful and malicious injury discharge exception in United States bankruptcy law including a summary of the Kawaauhau holding. Second, this Note examines the Supreme Court's holding in Kawaauhau, which correctly interpreted willfulness under 11 U.S.C. § 523(a)(6) to require intent to injure. Finally, this Note examines the proper interpretation to be given to the term "intent" as used by the Court in Kawaauhau to …