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Word Learning Styles, Diana Hincapie, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Word Learning Styles, Diana Hincapie, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Language acquisition is the way that humans learn and attain their spoken language. Infants are biologically equipped to attain four aspects of language. These include phonology, semantics, grammar, and pragmatics. The earliest acquired language begins with phonology, attained as early as three months and make rapid progressions to conversational language by four years of age.

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Ali Ibn Sahl Rabban Al-Tabari, Mithra H. Pirooz, Jonathan B. Santo Apr 2025

Ali Ibn Sahl Rabban Al-Tabari, Mithra H. Pirooz, Jonathan B. Santo

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari was born to a Persian family in current-day Turkmenistan, but later moved to what is now Northern Iran. Born circa 838 CE, he died around 870 CE. A Muslim hakim (wise man), he is known for his contributions to the field of medicine and psychology. As a teacher, his legacy continued with his student, Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ("Rhazes").

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Age Discrimination, Ruth V. Walker, Jessica L. Spauldin Apr 2025

Age Discrimination, Ruth V. Walker, Jessica L. Spauldin

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Ageism refers to discrimination toward individuals due to their age. Although younger adults may experience ageism, researchers and governmental policies recognize ageism as discrimination toward older adults. Women define ageism as a societal fixation with youth in addition to discrimination against older adults. Ageism is unique from other “isms” because everyone who lives long enough may be subjected to this particular form of prejudice.

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Albert Bandura, Jennifer L. Marshall, Allison Hutchinson Apr 2025

Albert Bandura, Jennifer L. Marshall, Allison Hutchinson

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Albert Bandura (born December 4, 1925 Mundare, Canada - Present, Professor Emeritus at Stanford University in Stanford, California) is a social cognitive theorist who is described as the “greatest psychologist alive today” (Clay, 2016). He is ranked in a 2002 survey as one of the most prominent figures in the discipline of psychology, only behind Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, and Jean Piaget. In 2015, at the age of 90 he received the National Medals of Science, the nation’s highest honor for achievement and leadership in advancing science, from President Barack Obama.

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Andrew N. Meltzoff: Social Cognition, Imitation, Cross-Modal Perception, Infant Development, Jeffrey H. Cornelius-White, Joan E. Test Apr 2025

Andrew N. Meltzoff: Social Cognition, Imitation, Cross-Modal Perception, Infant Development, Jeffrey H. Cornelius-White, Joan E. Test

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Andrew N. Meltzoff was born on February 9, 1950 in the United States. He studied psychology at Harvard University and did graduate work at the University of Oxford, in England, with Jerome Bruner, earning his doctorate there in 1976. Meltzoff began his professional career at the University of Washington in 1977, serving as a Professor of Psychology since 1988. He is currently co-director of the University of Washington Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences, an interdisciplinary research center.

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Aggression In Children, Emma C. Lathan, Jennifer Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Jose Gonzales Apr 2025

Aggression In Children, Emma C. Lathan, Jennifer Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Jose Gonzales

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Maladaptive aggression, defined by social psychologists as a set of behaviors intended to be verbally or physically harmful to others or objects, is unregulated and disinhibited, yet developmentally normative during certain stages of childhood (Connor, 2002). For example, for boys and girls, physical aggression increases at 18-months, peaks at 3.5 years, and declines with cognitive and emotional development (Teymoori et al., 2018). However, a small group of children continue to experience high levels of aggression that persist beyond developmentally appropriate behaviors. The current chapter will briefly: (i) review individual differences, including gender and age, that may affect forms of aggression …

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Andreas Demetriou, Benjamin Lowry, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Andreas Demetriou, Benjamin Lowry, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Andreas Demetriou was born August 15th, 1950 in Stongylo, Famagusta, Cyprus. Demetriou attended the University of Thessaloniki and obtained a Ph.D. in psychology in 1983. After completing his doctoral degree he was a professor of developmental and educational psychology at the University of Thessaloniki until 1996. Demetriou then became a professor at the University of Cyprus, serving in various leadership positions from 1996 to 2008, including chairing the Department of Educational Science and serving as dean for the School of Humanities and Social Sciences and dean of the School of Social Sciences and Sciences of Education. He also became the …

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Anxiety In Old Age, Kim Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Anxiety In Old Age, Kim Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Anxiety can be impairing and distressing for both the individual suffering from the symptoms and those around them. Emerging research suggests that anxiety symptoms and anxiety disorders in older adults are just as prevalent as with younger adults, according to the Anxiety and Depression Association of America (ADAA). The ADAA states that Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is the most common anxiety disorder in the older adult population in the United States. It is also common for an older adult to have had a prior anxiety diagnosis, including GAD, when they were younger that has persisted into older age. Fear of …

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Studs Terkel's 1974 Alienation Study, Michelle E. Tully, Jonathan B. Santo Apr 2025

Studs Terkel's 1974 Alienation Study, Michelle E. Tully, Jonathan B. Santo

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Psychology studies have changed the world in many ways, but few have served as the basis for both a Broadway musical and a graphic novel. Studs Terkel’s nonfiction book, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do, was an immediate bestseller when it was published in 1974. While not a psychology study in the strictest quantitative definition, ‘Working’ served as an ethnography on the working life of the American adult.

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Jerome Bruner, Michelle E. Tully, Jonathan B. Santo Apr 2025

Jerome Bruner, Michelle E. Tully, Jonathan B. Santo

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Born October 1st, 1915 in New York City to Polish immigrants, Bruner spent the first years of his life blind from cataracts. At the age of three he underwent surgery, which repaired his sense of sight. When reflecting on his career in his later years, Bruner credited this experience as a catalyst for his belief in constructivism, wherein the mind gives structure and meaning to experiences rather than passively taking them in, as well as fostering a continuing interest in the new and unexplored.

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Uta Frith, Morgan Uberti, Heidi Kloos Apr 2025

Uta Frith, Morgan Uberti, Heidi Kloos

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Uta Frith (born Aurnhammer on May 25, 1941) is a German psychologist best known for her work on autism. After graduating in experimental psychology from the University of Saarland, she pursued her PhD at the Institute of Psychiatry at the King’s College London, UK. It was during a course in abnormal psychology when she first encountered children diagnosed with autism. Experimental studies by Neil O’Connor and Beate Hermelin intrigued her, especially for applying an experimental perspective to the study of developmental disorders. Based on these experiences, Frith designed experiments that sought to shed light on atypical cognitive processes. Upon obtaining …

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Lifelong Learning, Rachel Wu Apr 2025

Lifelong Learning, Rachel Wu

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Lifelong learning is regarded as an important component in maintaining cognitive functioning in older age and has been at the center of many educational policies and psychological interventions. However, since this concept is broad and multi-faceted, some researchers argue that lifelong learning cannot be attributed a single, all-encompassing definition, but instead can hold different meanings in various contexts. For instance, some researchers perceive it as a process that inherently occurs throughout the course of one’s life.  This type of learning is said to be unique to each individual, because it is dependent on several factors, such as personal interests, environmental …

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Lifespan Development, Rachel Wu Apr 2025

Lifespan Development, Rachel Wu

Essays in Developmental Psychology

The human lifespan consists of several sequential stages: infancy, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle-age, and older adulthood. Because salient changes typically occur at each stage, many researchers have tended to specialize in one area, such as child development or gerontology. However, it is also important to study development across the lifespan, not just within lifespan stages. Some researchers utilize a lifespan developmental approach by studying how early childhood experiences, such as exposure to toxins or good schooling, might lead to positive or negative effects in aging adulthood. Other researchers investigate early signs of later-diagnosed disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder …

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Parten's Play Experiment, C. Nathalie Yuen, Jonathan B. Santo Apr 2025

Parten's Play Experiment, C. Nathalie Yuen, Jonathan B. Santo

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Mildred Parten (1902-1970) observed 34 children playing in a preschool setting (Parten, 1933).  The children's ages ranged from 2 to 4.5 years old.  Parten observed the children for one minute each day to develop a greater understanding of play behaviors.  The observations focused on type of group, activity, and play.  The types of play were solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative, and cooperative.

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Physiological Changes In Old Age, Rachel Zachar, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Physiological Changes In Old Age, Rachel Zachar, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Beginning in the third and fourth decades of life, subtle physiological changes start to occur with progressive decline as age increases. Some changes are visible such as wrinkling of the skin or whitening of hair, but the majority of physiological changes due to aging are internal. Many changes occur within the cardiovascular system. Boss and Seegmiller (1981) explain that with aging, cardiac output decreases as diastolic and systolic myocardial stiffness increases. These changes have been associated with increased blood pressure in older adults, leading to hypertension. This age-related change can be safely managed by antihypertensive therapy that is monitored regularly. …

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Self-Concept From A Developmental Perspective, C. Nathalie Yuen, Jonathan B. Santo Apr 2025

Self-Concept From A Developmental Perspective, C. Nathalie Yuen, Jonathan B. Santo

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Self-concept refers to individuals' perceptions of who they are (Marsh & Shavelson, 1985).  Conceptually distinct from self-esteem, self-concept addresses how individuals describe themselves in specific areas whereas self-esteem addresses how individuals generally feel (positively or negatively) about themselves.  Self-concept is multifaceted and consists of individuals' beliefs about themselves academically, socially, emotionally, and physically.  Self-concept refers to both how people think about themselves in general and in specific areas (Swann et al., 2007).

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Stephen J. Ceci, Rachel Zachar, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Stephen J. Ceci, Rachel Zachar, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Stephen J. Ceci was born on March 22, 1950, and while not much information is available on his early years, his life’s work has focused on studies surrounding the validity of children’s courtroom testimony, gender studies, and intelligence. Ceci received his bachelor’s degree in general psychology from the University of Delaware in 1973, earning his master’s degree in developmental psychology two years later in 1975 from the University of Pennsylvania. He completed his doctoral degree in developmental psychology in 1978 at the University of Exeter in England.

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Brain Plasticity, Rachel Wu Apr 2025

Brain Plasticity, Rachel Wu

Essays in Developmental Psychology

For decades, it was assumed that people are born with a certain number of neurons in the brain, and these neurons slowly died off with age. However, scientific studies have shown that the infant brain goes through very dramatic changes in the first few months and years of life (including adding additional neurons), and the brain can recover (although perhaps not fully) after a traumatic brain injury or stroke. Very recently, it has even been shown that new neurons can grow in the healthy adult brain. Brain plasticity involves long-lasting changes due to generation of new neurons, as well as …

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Erikson's Psychosocial Theory, C. Nathalie Yuen, Jonathan B. Santo Apr 2025

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory, C. Nathalie Yuen, Jonathan B. Santo

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory is comprised of eight stages, ranging from birth through adulthood (Berk, 2014).  Central to each stage is a crisis where individuals work toward a positive or negative resolution.  Although a negative resolution of a stage does not guarantee negative resolutions for future stages, a negative resolution could influence the outcome of future stages.  Erikson is considered a neo-Freudian and used Freud's theory of personality as a foundation for his own. However, Erikson's theory is termed a psychosocial theory because the focus is on individuals' relationships with others.

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Learning Disabilities Summary, Michael L. Woodward, Lisa L. Persinger Apr 2025

Learning Disabilities Summary, Michael L. Woodward, Lisa L. Persinger

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Learning Disabilities are the most prevalent category of special education within the United States. Recent U.S. Department of Education statistics indicate over 2.3 million school-aged (ages 6-21) students are currently eligible for special education services under the category of a Specific Learning Disability. These students encompass 3.5% of the U.S. school-aged population, and nearly 40% of all students eligible for special education services.

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Leisure Activities, Rachel Wu Apr 2025

Leisure Activities, Rachel Wu

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Many studies in the past few decades have examined how participation in leisure activities, such as playing a musical instrument, gardening, and reading the newspaper, can positively influence the aging process. For instance, studies have found an association between leisure activities and a reduced risk of amnestic mild cognitive impairment, dementia, and/or Alzheimer’s disease. In addition to positive cognitive outcomes, leisure activities also have been associated with a variety of other benefits, such as improved quality of life, mental health, life satisfaction, self-reports of happiness, and overall well-being. This entry provides a brief overview of the definition of leisure activities, …

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Intelligence Testing, Holly Van Duzer, Donna Devaughn Kreskey Apr 2025

Intelligence Testing, Holly Van Duzer, Donna Devaughn Kreskey

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Intelligence tests are tools used by psychologists to objectively measure an individual’s cognitive ability and prior knowledge. The administration, scoring and interpretation of intelligence tests are conducted by trained professionals to ensure standardized administration and appropriate use of the resulting test scores. Intelligence testing measures an individual’s current intellectual functioning, to diagnose an intellectual disability, and to diagnose specific learning disabilities, among other reasons. However, societal concerns and controversies surround the acceptance and use of intelligence testing.

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Mary Salter Ainsworth, Carmina Vital, Donna Devaughn Kreskey Apr 2025

Mary Salter Ainsworth, Carmina Vital, Donna Devaughn Kreskey

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Mary Salter Ainsworth, (born December 1, 1913, Glendale, Ohio – died March 21, 1999, Charlottesville, Virginia), was an American Canadian developmental psychologist best known for her contributions to attachment theory, including the Strange Situation Procedure for assessing individual differences in attachment.

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Occupational Choice, Gregory John Vitale Apr 2025

Occupational Choice, Gregory John Vitale

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Occupational choice is a multi-determined decision with influences from psychological traits, socioeconomic status, and cultural background. In addition, what a person ultimately does for a living is influenced by what they are capable of, what they like doing, what society requires, and what they can make a living doing. In other words, it is the combination of skill, enjoyment, societal need, and monetary return. This combination, if attained in harmony, is what the Japanese call “ikigai,” or “a reason for being.” Most people grow up thinking this harmony exists for them in some capacity; however, most people must make sacrifices …

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Blended Families, Brizel Trinidad, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Blended Families, Brizel Trinidad, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Blended families are more common than ever. Recent statistics show that more than half of marriages end in divorce, with the eventual merge of two new families. The families go through several stages to create their new family structure. Several models resemble the integration of family members into the newly defined family. In 2001, Braithwaite and his colleagues identified five developmental pathways or trajectories that blended families followed as they become a family: accelerated, prolonged, stagnating, declining, and high-amplitude turbulent.

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Trait Stability, Gregory John Vitale Apr 2025

Trait Stability, Gregory John Vitale

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Trait stability is the concept that personality structures largely remain consistent over time. Traits, like many concepts in psychology, tend to be considered one part nature and one part nurture; that is, individuals are born with some qualities and learn to employ others based on their environment. Psychologists have taken the concept of innate traits and made inferences about how they may or may not be related to some psychological disorders, especially personality disorders, and have found mixed results. This has immense developmental implications. For one, despite a child’s temperament traits at an early age, the environment can change them. …

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Personal Control And Domains, Gregory John Vitale, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Personal Control And Domains, Gregory John Vitale, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Through early experiences, people develop a growing sense of what they can control. One of the first ways researchers began to examine control was to define the degree to which an individual believes control is self-determined (i.e., internal locus of control) or not (i.e., external locus of control). An internal locus of control has traditionally been considered the “favored” profile, being associated with low levels of depression and other common psychopathology. A more modern view of locus of control suggests that a balance between both internal and external loci of control may foster the most adaptive outlook, and that it …

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Cohabitation, Shanna K. Williams, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Cohabitation, Shanna K. Williams, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Cohabitation is defined as the act of an unmarried romantic couple (of any sexual orientation) residing together under one roof. The concept of cohabitation is not new and the rates with which it is occurring have been growing throughout the United States over the past several decades. The idea to live as unmarried romantic partners first became popular in Scandinavian countries where, for a variety of reasons, cohabitation remains an accepted and even valued option.

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Robbers Cave Study Summary, Michael L. Woodward, Lisa L. Persinger Apr 2025

Robbers Cave Study Summary, Michael L. Woodward, Lisa L. Persinger

Essays in Developmental Psychology

In 1949, a group of social psychologists led by Muzafer Sherif began a series of experiments looking into the origin of group conflict and prejudice within groups of 1112 year old boys. Social psychologists had previously focused research on patterns of discrimination, conflict, and prejudice. However, few empirical investigations had been devoted to examining how these divisive thoughts and behaviors develop, and why. The goal of the project was to naturally create prejudice within controlled environments where no prejudice had existed before. The study also examined methods for eliminating prejudice once it had been created.

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Learning (Communication), Talia Waltzer, Heidi Kloos Apr 2025

Learning (Communication), Talia Waltzer, Heidi Kloos

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Children are impressive learners. For instance, after a few years of exposure, they can utter sentences that resemble mature phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. They do so without formal instruction, and they do so seemingly effortlessly. What are the mechanisms by which children can accomplish such a feat? In this entry, we sketch out different perspectives on learning, focusing on language learning as an example.

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