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A Molecular Approach To Answering An Anthropological Question Concerning Burial Customs In An Ancient Egypt Population, Jamey Tolman, Dr. Scott Woodward Jan 2014

A Molecular Approach To Answering An Anthropological Question Concerning Burial Customs In An Ancient Egypt Population, Jamey Tolman, Dr. Scott Woodward

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Recent advances in DNA sequencing technology have allowed us to gain knowledge about the ancient populations of the world. A team of BYU students and faculty has excavated a group of bodies, dating from 200 B.C. to 400 A.D., found in the Fag El Gamous cemetery in Egypt. A major observation from the excavations has been that the earlier, or lower burials, in the cemetery are buried with their heads to the east. As you move up in the cemetery, to more recent dates, a distinct change occurs in the orientation of the burials. The bodies are placed with their …

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Synergistic Effects Of Vitamin C And Vitamin K3 In The Widr Human Colon Adenocarcinoma Cell Line, Jeffery Sivert Tessem, Dr. Byron K. Murray Jan 2014

Synergistic Effects Of Vitamin C And Vitamin K3 In The Widr Human Colon Adenocarcinoma Cell Line, Jeffery Sivert Tessem, Dr. Byron K. Murray

Journal of Undergraduate Research

In recent years in both clinical and experimental research the benefits of vitamins as anti-cancer agents have been described. Derivatives of vitamin C have been shown to “diminish the tumor mass in inoperable tumor patients” as well as cause degeneration of hepatocellular carcinoma in rats due to direct cytotoxicity to the tumor cells (1). Vitamin K3 has also been shown to induces DNA damage, reduced expression of c-myc, and caused apoptosis in human T-lymphocyte Jurkat cells, and other effects have also been seen in other cell lines (1). Studies have been done using these two vitamins in conjunction on …

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Comparative Resistance Of Human Papilloma Virus To Inactivation By Selected Chemical Disinfectants, Elisabeth Tillman, Dr. Richard A. Robinson Jan 2014

Comparative Resistance Of Human Papilloma Virus To Inactivation By Selected Chemical Disinfectants, Elisabeth Tillman, Dr. Richard A. Robinson

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Cervical cancer is the fifth most common cancer in humans as well as the second most common cause of cancer death in women [3]. In developing countries, cervical cancer is actually the most common female disease, constituting 30% of female cancers [1]. In the United States, cervical cancer is diagnosed in approximately 15,000 women and is responsible for 4,600 deaths each year [2]. At least 90% of all cervical carcinomas are related to human papilloma virus (HPV) infection. The purpose of my study is to reduce the dangerous spread of HPV through effective disinfection.

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Jak/Stat Pathway Utilized By Adrenal Cells In Response To Il-6, Brice Jason Williams, Dr. Allan M. Judd Jan 2014

Jak/Stat Pathway Utilized By Adrenal Cells In Response To Il-6, Brice Jason Williams, Dr. Allan M. Judd

Journal of Undergraduate Research

In most mammals, the adrenal cortex produces the hormones cortisol, aldosterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). These hormones have profound effects upon water and salt balance, the inflammatory response, and the metabolism of sugars, fats, and proteins. Because of its importance in maintaining homeostasis, the body highly regulates the adrenal gland. As part of the regulation, the body secretes many different molecules including cytokines. One of the most researched cytokines is interleukin-6, IL-6 (1). Many different cells produce IL-6, including adrenal cortical cells (2). The adrenal cortical cells secrete IL-6 into the extracellular space. IL-6 then binds to its receptor (IL-6 receptor …

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Locating Chondrocyte-Specific Enhancer Elements In The First Intronic Region Of The Col11a2 Gene, Steven Alan Smith, Dr. Laura Bridgewater Jan 2014

Locating Chondrocyte-Specific Enhancer Elements In The First Intronic Region Of The Col11a2 Gene, Steven Alan Smith, Dr. Laura Bridgewater

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Osteoarthritis is one of most prominent illnesses that plague our world today. It involves the degeneration of cartilage between joints due to a reduction of collagen fibrils. The type XI collagen gene (Col11a2) is one of a few genes responsible for the production of the collagen fibrils. It is expressed wherever cartilage is present. It is expressed in these areas because of specific expression factors (proteins) that enhance the production of collagen. Once these expression factors are known, a possible genetic remedy can be manufactured to aide in curing osteoarthritis or other skeletal abnormalities.

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Effects Of Dietary Phytoestrogens On Calcium-Binding Proteins And Cox- 2 In The Frontal Cortex Of Adult Rats, Lilyan Yi Tian, Dr. Edwin Lephart Jan 2014

Effects Of Dietary Phytoestrogens On Calcium-Binding Proteins And Cox- 2 In The Frontal Cortex Of Adult Rats, Lilyan Yi Tian, Dr. Edwin Lephart

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Phytoestrogens are estrogen-like molecules found in many plants (that have a diphenolic, non-steroidal structure), such as, fruits, vegetables, legumes, whole-grain and especially soy products. These plant estrogen mimic the ability to selectively bind estrogen receptors and have recently received a great deal of investigative attention due to the potential protective effects against age-related diseases (e.g., cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis) as well as hormone-dependent cancers (i.e., breast and prostate cancer). At this time, however, little is known about the effects phytoestrogens have on the central nervous system (CNS).

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The Separation Of Suspected Subspecies Of Cutthroat Trout Using Mitochondrial Dna Sequences, Becky A. Shiozawa, R. Paul Evans Jan 2014

The Separation Of Suspected Subspecies Of Cutthroat Trout Using Mitochondrial Dna Sequences, Becky A. Shiozawa, R. Paul Evans

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Current mitochondrial DNA techniques using restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) are still unsuccessful in determining phylogenetic relationships between subspecies of cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki), such as the relationships between Snake River finespot cutthroat trout and Yellowstone cutthroat trout, Bear River Bonneville cutthroat trout and Yellowstone cutthroat trout, and Lahontan cutthroat trout and its subspecies. Due to these groups distinct geological or ecological separation and the relatively rapid rate of mtDNA evolution, it is likely distinctive markers exist for these subspecies within mtDNA. Identification of such markers would be valuable for identification and future research on the subspecies.

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Systematics Of The Crayfish Group Cambarus Jugicambarus, Don Wyatt, Dr. Keith A. Crandall Jan 2014

Systematics Of The Crayfish Group Cambarus Jugicambarus, Don Wyatt, Dr. Keith A. Crandall

Journal of Undergraduate Research

The ecology, morphology, behavior, and geographical distribution of freshwater crayfish are extremely diverse. The genus Cambarus is the second largest in species richness, containing over 25% of the crayfish diversity in North America. The subgenus jugicambarus contains 21 species. Relationships among the taxa within this group are not well understood. The objectives of this research were to:

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Investigation Of The Mitochondrial B Haplotype Preponderance In The Lake Titicaca Basin Populations Of Peru, Michael Malan, Dr. Scott R. Woodward Jan 2014

Investigation Of The Mitochondrial B Haplotype Preponderance In The Lake Titicaca Basin Populations Of Peru, Michael Malan, Dr. Scott R. Woodward

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Advances in recombinant DNA technology have greatly assisted the study of human population history by helping to shed light on human origins and relationships. Study of the extra nuclear mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) has been a most significant tool used in these investigations. Numerous studies designed with the purpose of documenting world wide genetic diversity and distribution have used the mitochondrial genome as their primary focus. Most significant to this research are those which focus on the mtDNA of New World peoples. Past research has identified and confirmed the existence of 4 major mitochondrial haplotypes (A, B, C, D) present in …

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Bax Over-Expression Coupled With Bcl-2 Suppression Under The Control Of The Cancer-Specific Thymidine Kinase Promoter, Brian H. Ladle, Dr. Kim L. O'Neill Jan 2014

Bax Over-Expression Coupled With Bcl-2 Suppression Under The Control Of The Cancer-Specific Thymidine Kinase Promoter, Brian H. Ladle, Dr. Kim L. O'Neill

Journal of Undergraduate Research

As researchers continue to discover the molecular origins of cancer, gene therapy targeting cellular processes gone awry shows great promise as the future in cancer treatment. Extensive research is being done to develop more effective techniques targeting different cellular events. One pathway receiving increased attention is apoptosis (the default mechanisms activated intracellularly by extensive damage, causing the cell to kill itself). Often cancer will develop when genetic mutations or other cellular events render the cells unable to die by apoptosis. My research investigates a novel gene therapy that will restore the cancer cell’s ability to die by apoptosis, while limiting …

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Forgotten Battles Of The Civil War: Victories Over Disease In Nashville, Tennessee, And New Orleans, Louisiana, Michael Packer, Dr. Mary Stovall Richards Jan 2014

Forgotten Battles Of The Civil War: Victories Over Disease In Nashville, Tennessee, And New Orleans, Louisiana, Michael Packer, Dr. Mary Stovall Richards

Journal of Undergraduate Research

During the Civil War disease was a major problem. Many different diseases combined to cause immense problems for civilians and army personnel alike. More soldiers died from disease than from battle. While medical knowledge was growing, physicians had neither the knowledge nor the understanding to combat most diseases. Doctors both North and South had little success against many illnesses.

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Cytotoxicity Of Caffeine, Ephedrine, And Metabolites, Jennetta Watson, Dr. Gary Booth Jan 2014

Cytotoxicity Of Caffeine, Ephedrine, And Metabolites, Jennetta Watson, Dr. Gary Booth

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Caffeine and ephedrine are found together as constituents in a variety of dietary supplements promising to increase metabolism, raise energy levels, and promote weight loss. Much research has been done in this area; however, there is little to no information in the literature about studies focused on the toxicity and anti-proliferative properties of this same caffeine/ephedrine combination occurring at the cellular level. Caffeine’s toxicity against many cell types has been well documented for years.1 In addition, a number of studies have shown that using caffeine or its metabolites in combination with other chemical or physical reagents increases the overall …

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The Phylogeny And Evolution Of Color Patterning Among The Pleasing Fungus Beetles (Coleoptera: Erotylidae)., James A. Robertson, Dr. Michael F. Whiting Jan 2014

The Phylogeny And Evolution Of Color Patterning Among The Pleasing Fungus Beetles (Coleoptera: Erotylidae)., James A. Robertson, Dr. Michael F. Whiting

Journal of Undergraduate Research

The family Erotylidae (pleasing fungus beetles) currently includes 125 genera, and approximately 2,500 described species and has a worldwide distribution. There are five currently recognized subfamilies within Erotylidae: Dacninae, Megalodacninae, Eucaustinae, Tritominae, and Erotylinae. Erotylids are mycophagous, feeding on basidiomycete fungi, and exhibit a wide range of gregarious behavior. Most erotylids have a striking appearance, exhibiting bright colors including red, yellow, pink, and purple, frequently in combination with contrasting black. These colors are often arranged in zigzag, banding, or polka dot patterns. It has been suggested that the striking coloration found among erotylids is aposematic, and erotylids are consequently presumed …

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The Inhibitory Affects Of Phytochemicals Against A Carcinogen By The Modulation Of Xenobiotic Enzymes In Hepg2 Cells, Jon Ahlstrom, Dr. Kim O'Neill Jan 2014

The Inhibitory Affects Of Phytochemicals Against A Carcinogen By The Modulation Of Xenobiotic Enzymes In Hepg2 Cells, Jon Ahlstrom, Dr. Kim O'Neill

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Cancer is the cause of death of 1 in 3 citizens in the United States. A diet rich in fruits and vegetables can reduce cancer deaths by 33%. Cancer prevention from dietary plants may in part be derived from individual phytochemicals inherent to the plant. The identification of plant phytochemicals that have anti-cancer properties and their mode of action is an important area of cancer research.

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Examination Of Ap-4 As A Transcriptional Activator Of The Col11a2 Chondrocyte-Specific Enhancer Elements, Todd Lincoln Jackson, Dr. Laura Bridgewater Jan 2014

Examination Of Ap-4 As A Transcriptional Activator Of The Col11a2 Chondrocyte-Specific Enhancer Elements, Todd Lincoln Jackson, Dr. Laura Bridgewater

Journal of Undergraduate Research

My purpose is to explore activator protein 4’s (AP-4) role in the expression of the Col11a2 gene. My hypothesis is that AP-4 will bind to the Col11a2 enhancer elements and increase activity of that gene. AP-4 is a ubiquitous transcription factor. Transcription factors are proteins that help regulate cell differentiation and proliferation by binding to enhancer sites to promote or inhibit gene expression. Previous work has shown that the mouse Col11a2 gene contains at least three enhancer sites namely; ABC, DE, and FG [1,2]. Each sequence of the enhancer sites was put through two computer databases of known transcription factors …

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Evolution Of Cytochrome B In Elapidae (Squamata: Serpentes), Dean H. Leavitt, Dr. David A. Mcclellan Jan 2014

Evolution Of Cytochrome B In Elapidae (Squamata: Serpentes), Dean H. Leavitt, Dr. David A. Mcclellan

Journal of Undergraduate Research

DNA sequences provide a wealth of information that allows systematists to better understand the phylogenetic history of the earth’s current biota. Some genes are better suited for phylogenetic studies than others, and one that has been commonly used is the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b. Cytochrome b (cyt-b) is a membrane-bound protein that is the central catalytic subunit of the Q-cycle in the electron transport chain (Zhang et al., 1998). The structure and function of cyt-b has been studied extensively and is well understood (Degli Esposti et al., 1993). Changes within cyt-b have been studied at the nucleotide, amino acid and …

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Bacteria As Bioindicators: Bioassessment In The Bonneville Basin Of Utah, Mark Merkley, Russell Rader Jan 2014

Bacteria As Bioindicators: Bioassessment In The Bonneville Basin Of Utah, Mark Merkley, Russell Rader

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Bioassessment is the practice of using organisms to detect environmental health and integrity. Ecosystem health and integrity depend on the interaction between living organism and ecosystem function. All organisms or groups of organisms do not respond the same to environmental stress. Depending on various disturbance characteristics, each group may respond at different rates and provide different information (Rader, 2001). Besides the usual macrophytes, macroinvertebrates, or algae, bacteria have the capability of being strong bioindicators. Because of their extremely small size, bacteria have the highest surface-to volume ratios of any living organisms. Thus, bacteria should be the most environmentally aware organisms, …

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The Specific Binding Of Protein’S To The Abc, Fg, And De Enhancer Elements Of The Col11a2 Gene, Kristopher Bennion, Dr. Laura Bridgewater Jan 2014

The Specific Binding Of Protein’S To The Abc, Fg, And De Enhancer Elements Of The Col11a2 Gene, Kristopher Bennion, Dr. Laura Bridgewater

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Gene therapy is extensively being studied in many labs for the potential treatment of such disorders as arthritis, cancer, diabetes, and other such disabling diseases. Researchers in Dr. Bridgewater’s lab have been studying the Col11a2 gene in hopes of future treatment of such disorders as cleft palate, dwarfism, and several forms of arthritis. Two years ago we confirmed and established that ABC, DE, and FG were indeed acting as enhancer elements for the Col11a2 gene through various mutations to these specific regions of the gene. These findings have led the lab to do research in the development of a “super …

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Dppg Susceptibility To Human Group X Phospholipase A2, Katrina Behling, Dr. John D. Bell Jan 2014

Dppg Susceptibility To Human Group X Phospholipase A2, Katrina Behling, Dr. John D. Bell

Journal of Undergraduate Research

There are eight known isoforms of the mammalian secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2). One of these, the recently discovered human group X sPLA2 (hGX), when added to adherent cells, has the ability to cleave the second fatty acid side chain of phospholipids, thereby producing arachidonic acid. Other isozymes, when added in a similar manner, do not release arachidonic acid unless the cells have become non-adherent, or are first treated with chemicals that increase intracellular calcium levels such as ionomycin, lysolecithin, or thionin. Originally, we were interested in whether hGX would respond with increased enzymatic activity, as do the other sPLA2 isoforms, …

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Convergent Hiv Evolution, Keith A. Crandall, Dr. Chris R. Kelsey Jan 2014

Convergent Hiv Evolution, Keith A. Crandall, Dr. Chris R. Kelsey

Journal of Undergraduate Research

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus with RNA as its genetic material. During the replication cycle, the enzyme reverse transcriptase uses the RNA template to transcribe a complementary DNA copy. Because of the significant infidelity of reverse transcriptase, mutations accumulate within the viral genome at a rate approximately a million times higher than that of a typical host genome (3). This high mutation rate leads to a heterogeneous population in which viral isolates are closely related and evolutionary pathways can be discerned from molecular data. In addition, high mutation rates allow for accelerated evolution, especially under selective conditions. …

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Production Of Cytokines Interleukin-6 And Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha In Human Adrenocortical H295r Cells, Joseph Johnson, Dr. Allan M. Judd Jan 2014

Production Of Cytokines Interleukin-6 And Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha In Human Adrenocortical H295r Cells, Joseph Johnson, Dr. Allan M. Judd

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Difficulties associated with research into the physiology of the human adrenal gland have been alleviated due to the isolation of the human adrenocortical tumor cell-line, NCI-H295R, which retains the ability to produce adrenocortical steroids (e.g. aldosterone, cortisol, DHEA) when grown in culture (1). We investigated whether these cells also produce cytokines, peptides which regulate endocrine and immune function.

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The Role Of Interleukin-6, C-Fos And C-Jun In Adrenal Secretion, D. Craig Seager, Dr. Allan M. Judd Jan 2014

The Role Of Interleukin-6, C-Fos And C-Jun In Adrenal Secretion, D. Craig Seager, Dr. Allan M. Judd

Journal of Undergraduate Research

The secretions of the adrenal gland are responsible for the body’s response to stress. One of the major mechanisms by which these secretions are regulated is by the way of the hypothalamuspituitary- adrenal axis (HPA axis). However, it was suspected that other mechanisms exist that are utilized by the body in order to up or down regulate adrenal secretions. One adrenal secretion, cortisol, is of special interest due to its great abundance and various effects in the body. Cortisol levels are generally regulated by ACTH, which is released by the pituitary. However, it was also shown to be increased by …

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Molecular Mechanism Of Neuronal Communication, Blake Simmons, Dr. Dixon Woodbury Jan 2014

Molecular Mechanism Of Neuronal Communication, Blake Simmons, Dr. Dixon Woodbury

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Nerve Cells communicate with each other by synaptic transmission. Synaptic transmission is the release by one nerve cell of neurotransmitters packaged in synaptic vesicles. Proteins known as SNAREs, (e.g., synaptobrevin and syntaxin) are believed to drive neurotransmitter release by inducing fusion (exocytosis) within a presynaptic neuron. Figure 1 shows a synaptic vesicle binding to the presynaptic membrane and the interaction of two SNARE proteins.i,ii My plan was to map which domains of the SNARE protein, syntaxin, are necessary for fusion.

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Common Variable Immunodeficiency: Literature And Reality, Heather Janene Kearl, Dr. Richard R. Tolman Jan 2014

Common Variable Immunodeficiency: Literature And Reality, Heather Janene Kearl, Dr. Richard R. Tolman

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is one of the least understood primary immunodeficiencies. It is a disease where the body attacks its own antibodies, destroying all or most of them. Patients with CVID suffer from recurrent illnesses such as pneumonia, hepatitis, and other infections. While scientists know very little about the illness, there is much information available postulating its origin. In my thesis, I reviewed the current literature concerning CVID and compared it to the real life story of a woman, Darlene Phillips, whose life CVID has shaped.

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Preliminary Phylogeneic Analyses Of The Erotylidae (Coleoptera: Cucujoidea: Erotylidae) Based On Molecular Data, James A. Robertson, Dr. Michael F. Whiting Jan 2014

Preliminary Phylogeneic Analyses Of The Erotylidae (Coleoptera: Cucujoidea: Erotylidae) Based On Molecular Data, James A. Robertson, Dr. Michael F. Whiting

Journal of Undergraduate Research

The Cucujoidea, a very diverse beetle superfamily, includes mycophagous and wood consuming beetles. Within the Cucujoidea is the family Erotylidae (pleasing fungus beetles). The Erotylidae includes 125 genera and approximately 2,500 species, and has a worldwide distribution. Erotylids are known for their striking coloration, including black with yellow, red, orange and even pink and purple (Boyle 1956). The current hypothesis of erotylid phylogeny is based exclusively on adult morphology and was not formulated using rigorous phylogenetic methodology. Hence phylogenetic relationships of the major lineages within this family are dubious. Since erotylid beetles exhibit such striking aposematic coloration, a well-supported phylogeny, …

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Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (Aflp) Analysis Of Head Smut Population Diversity, Jennifer Waters, Dr. Mikel R. Stevens Jan 2014

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (Aflp) Analysis Of Head Smut Population Diversity, Jennifer Waters, Dr. Mikel R. Stevens

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass), an invasive winter annual weed, displaces native vegetation, invades crops, and fuels rangeland fires across approximately 40 million hectares of the Intermountain West. Most attempts to control the weed have been unsuccessful, leading to a search for a biological control agent. Ustilago bullata, head smut, is a natural species-specific, fungal pathogen of cheatgrass. Despite apparent phenotypic (physical) uniformity in cheatgrass and head smut, susceptibility and virulence, respectively, are variable. These findings led to the hypothesis that genetic variability for susceptibility/pathogenicity exists in the host and pathogen.

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Antibiotic Resistance In Escherichia-Coli Isolates From Guatemala, Troy Russon, Dr. Ronald Leavitt Jan 2014

Antibiotic Resistance In Escherichia-Coli Isolates From Guatemala, Troy Russon, Dr. Ronald Leavitt

Journal of Undergraduate Research

It is estimated that at least one-half of all antibiotic use in the United States is inappropriate.1 Physicians often prescribe broad spectrum antibiotics when the disease causing bacterial strain could be targeted specifically. Also, patients are prone to expect prescriptions for antibiotics even when their infections are viral, such as the common cold. While the United States and most industrialized nations require prescriptions for antimicrobial drug use, most developing countries do not. It is reasonable to hypothesize that drug resistance in these countries may be occurring at a more accelerated rate.2 I tested Escherichia-coli isolates from Guatemala for resistance to …

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In Vitro Effects Of Follicular Dendritic Cells On Proliferation Of Hiv Infected T Cells, Jesse Rowley, Dr. Gregory Burton Jan 2014

In Vitro Effects Of Follicular Dendritic Cells On Proliferation Of Hiv Infected T Cells, Jesse Rowley, Dr. Gregory Burton

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), the cause of AIDS, has eluded successful treatment since its discovery in the early 1980s. HIV is a retrovirus that infects and eventually destroys CD4+ T cells. In HIV infected individuals it is believed that during the longest phase of infection (latency) most viral production takes place in and around the germinal centers of secondary lymphoid tissues. Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) are a unique component of the germinal center, and previous studies done in our laboratory have suggested that FDCs may augment viral replication and/or infection within the germinal center.

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Ancient Egyptian Textiles: A Genetic Look Into 2000-Year-Old Egyptian Communities, Shaun Odell, Dr. Scott Woodward Jan 2014

Ancient Egyptian Textiles: A Genetic Look Into 2000-Year-Old Egyptian Communities, Shaun Odell, Dr. Scott Woodward

Journal of Undergraduate Research

In the mid 1980’s archeologists from BYU began excavating a 2000-year-old burial site in Northern Egypt called the Fag-el-Gamous cemetery. This cemetery contains the remains of roughly 350,000 individuals who had been buried there between 200 BC and 400 AD during the Greco-Roman period of Egyptian history. The chemical composition of the desert, as well as the hot, dry climate, naturally mummified not only the individuals of focus, but also numerous textile samples found on the mummies. Excavation of this sight has proceeded from that time, providing unique opportunities for study of ancient Egyptian culture.

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Preventing Salmonella And Other Bacterial Contamination In Poultry Using A High-Adhering Strain Of Escherichia Coli, Jeffrey P. North, Dr. Ron Leavitt Jan 2014

Preventing Salmonella And Other Bacterial Contamination In Poultry Using A High-Adhering Strain Of Escherichia Coli, Jeffrey P. North, Dr. Ron Leavitt

Journal of Undergraduate Research

In 1928 Alexander Fleming revolutionized the world with the discovery of penicillin. Penicillin and the antibiotics discovered thereafter revolutionized the treatment of infectious diseases. Equipped with these miracle drugs, scientists thought the battle against pathogenic bacteria was won. However, bacteria began to evolve to meet the antibiotic challenge. As the 20th century progressed, more and more bacteria developed resistance to one or more antibiotics. This resistance is achieved through mutation or through horizontal gene transfer, when one bacterium transfers the gene to another bacterium.

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