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Aggregation And Collation Of Texas Crayfish Museum Specimens To Determine Their Current Conservation Statuses, Adrian Alvarez

Biology Theses

Crayfish account for over half of the macroinvertebrate biomass in many ecosystems and serve as crucial bioindicators because of their behavioral and physiological adaptability to environmental changes. Despite being home to approximately 52 native crayfish species, Texas currently lacks protective regulations. This gap is primarily because of insufficient information regarding their distribution and occurrences within the state, including their statuses as Species of Greatest Conservation Need (SGCN). This study focuses on compiling and comparing crayfish museum records with current iNaturalist field survey data across Texas to address these knowledge gaps and recommend updates to SGCN statuses. Five species not currently …

Fisheries Management Paper No. 313: Western Australian Statewide Small Pelagic Scalefish Resource Harvest Strategy, Department Of Primary Industries And Regional Development, Western Australia

Fisheries Management Papers

Harvest strategies for Western Australia’s (WA) aquatic resources are formal documents developed by the Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development (DPIRD, the Department) to support decision-making processes that ensure the outcomes are consistent with the principles of Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD; Fletcher 2002a) and Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management (EBFM; Fletcher et al. 2012).

Harvest strategies are a key component of all contemporary fishery management systems and a requirement for certification under the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC; Marine Stewardship Council 2018). The objectives of ESD are reflected in the objects of the Fish Resources Management Act 1994 (FRMA).

This Statewide …

Three Essays On Veterinary Drug Maximum Residue Limits, Akinbode Okunola

Department of Agricultural Economics: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

This dissertation consists of three essays: the first examines the prevalence of veterinary drug maximum residue limits (MRLs), the regulatory behavior of countries in setting these MRLs, and the degree of country-level compliance with international standards of Codex Alimentarius (Codex). The second evaluates the extent to which compliance with international standards across countries can help to manage potential transmission of resistant bacterial from animals to humans through consumption of contaminated meat, dairy and aquaculture products. The third focuses on how differences in regulatory standards across countries can impact international trade in the global beef, pork, and poultry markets.

The first …

Population Structure And Connectivity Of Atlantic Nurse Sharks (Ginglymostoma Cirratum) In The Bahamas And Outlying Areas, Baylie A. Fadool

School of Natural Resources: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

Understanding animal ecosystem dynamics and behavior at the individual and population levels is essential for identifying life-history patterns and important areas for management and conservation. Marine fish species often face minimal geographic barriers to movement, but environmental (temperature, salinity, current) or intrinsic barriers (philopatry, site fidelity) can dictate gene flow. Atlantic nurse sharks (Ginglymostoma cirratum) are an International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed ‘vulnerable’ species and present a unique opportunity to investigate patterns of population structure and connectivity in large-bodied sharks. They are benthic and display reproductive philopatry, with recent work suggesting they have the capacity …

Reversible, Light-Controlled Inhibition Of Stim1-Mediated Calcium Signaling Using Photoswitchable Ml-9 Derivatives In Jurkat-Lucia Nfat Reporter T Cells, José L. Matute Gálvez

Honors Scholar Theses

Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) through calcium release-activated

calcium (CRAC) channels is the dominant pathway for sustained Ca2+ influx in

non-excitable cells and is essential for T cell activation, driving downstream

signaling through the calcineurin-NFAT transcriptional axis. Dysregulation of

SOCE produces multi-systemic disease phenotypes, establishing that precise,

spatiotemporally controlled modulation of this pathway is a fundamental

therapeutic requirement. ML-9 is one of the only characterized small molecules

capable of targeting SOCE upstream at the level of STIM1 localization, but lacks

the selectivity, pharmacokinetic properties, and spatiotemporal control necessary

for therapeutic development.

This work describes the design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of …

Phenotypic Contribution And Regulation Of Vibrio Parahaemolyticus Cold-Shock Protein Homologue Vp1889, Oleg Borisovich Ermolinsky

Theses and Dissertations

Vibrio parahaemolyticus is the primary causative agent of a form of gastroenteritis called vibriosis commonly acquired from ingestion of raw and undercooked seafood. The primary mitigation of seafood-borne illnesses is immediate storage on ice following catch, which inhibits bacterial metabolism and replication. Mesophilic bacteria such as V. parahaemolyticus induce expression of cold-shock proteins in a process named the cold shock response, which facilitates survival at low temperatures. V. parahaemolyticus bears 3 homologues of the major Escherichia coli cold-shock protein CspA, an RNA chaperone. Induction of E. coli CspA at low temperatures depends on autogenous modulation by its mRNA structure, which …

Investigating The Ability Of Foxo1 To Maintain Stem Cells, Stella Aime Rios

Theses and Dissertations

Forkhead box O (Foxo) transcription factors are key regulators of stem cell identity and tumor aggressiveness. Prior work from our group and others demonstrates that Foxo factors maintain stem-like states across diverse biological systems; however, the mechanisms by which Foxo1 suppresses differentiation remain poorly defined.

Using C2C12 myoblasts as a model, we investigated whether Foxo1 preserves stem-like programs through regulation of the nuclear pore protein Nup210. RNA interference was used to generate Foxo1 knockdown cells, followed by qRT-PCR, RNA-sequencing, and fluorescence microscopy. Transcriptomic analysis revealed widespread gene expression changes involving metabolic, mitochondrial, and transcriptional pathways. Notably, Nup210 expression was significantly …

Identification Of Peptides For A Muc13 Cancer Vaccine, Abigail Olivia Gomez

Theses and Dissertations

Mucin 13 (MUC13) is a transmembrane glycoprotein that is frequently overexpressed in epithelial cancers. Its extracellular domains and cytoplasmic signaling potential contribute to disrupted cell adhesion, increased invasion, and cancer-promoting pathways, making MUC13 a promising target for immunotherapy. This project used an in-silico approach to identify MUC13-derived peptides predicted to bind HLA class I molecules and support CD8+ T cell-mediated immune responses. Bioinformatics tools were used to screen candidate epitopes for HLA binding affinity, antigenicity, toxicity, IFN-γ-inducing potential, and population coverage, allowing rational prioritization of peptide candidates for experimentation. Selected peptides were evaluated in THP-1-derived macrophages using RT-PCR, Western blotting, …

Searching Harder For The Darter: Evaluating Endangered Yellowcheek Darter (Nothonotus Moorei) Status And Drought Responses, Kearstin Findley

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Freshwater ecosystems are one of the most imperiled habitats across the world with biodiversity declining rapidly. There are many stressors contributing to freshwater species declines including habitat loss and degradation, land-use changes, anthropogenic water demands, changes in precipitation and weather extremes, and pollution. Current environmental projections predict that these stressors will continue to impact freshwater ecosystems to greater extents moving forward. Stream drying from drought conditions increasing in intensity and frequency is especially concerning in northern Arkansas where seasonal drought is typical in the summer and fall months. With increased drying conditions, the elimination of shallow-water riffle habitats in streams …

Food-Form Delivery Of Spore-Forming Probiotics As An Alternative To Gavage In Animal Models, Aubreyona Faith Migliori Skalka

All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Fall 2023 to Present

Western dietary patterns are characterized by nutrient-poor, calorie-rich diets and have been linked to poor health outcomes and gut inflammation phenotypes. Probiotics are often taken to support gut health, but many beneficial bacteria do not survive transport through the digestive system to produce any effect. Spore-forming bacteria, such as Bacillus coagulans, are more resilient due to their hardy outer coat which aids in survival through many obstacles encountered in the gastrointestinal tract, including acidic stomach conditions. In research studies, probiotics are usually given to mice through a procedure called oral gavage, where a tube is used to deliver the …

Enrichment Of The Thermophilic Archaea Gearchaeales And Calditenuis In Lab Culture, Walter Saldivar

Electronic Theses, Projects, and Dissertations

Numerous microbes on Earth have yet to be grown in pure cultures and studied in the laboratory. Cultivation-independent genomic methods, such as metagenomics, can help us predict their metabolic capabilities, but cultivation remains valuable for testing these predictions. These uncultivated microbes are very diverse, especially within hot springs. Examples of these uncultivated microbes include the genus Calditenuis (formerly Aigarchaeota Group 1) and the order Gearchaeales; they are often abundant in terrestrial hot springs such as Great Boiling Springs (GBS) in Nevada. Previous work allowed for the establishment of laboratory enrichment cultures inoculated from sediments of GBS containing Calditenuis and …

Wrky Transcription Factors: Integral Regulators Of Defence Responses To Biotic Stress In Crops, Dongjiao Wang, Ruize Zhang, Wenhui Zou, Yuanyuan Zhang, Wanying Zhao, Tingting Sun, Qibin Wu, Zheng Qing Fu, Youxiong Que

Faculty Publications

Crops are continually challenged by biotic stresses, including fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens and insect pests, which cause substantial yield and quality losses worldwide. WRKY transcription factors constitute a plant-specific and functionally diverse family that is central to immune regulation. Recent advances in genomic resources and multi-omics approaches have accelerated the identification and functional characterisation of WRKYs in crops. This review summarises the structural features and classification of WRKY genes and their genome-wide distribution across crop species. It also synthesises WRKY-centred regulatory modules that mediate resistance to major classes of biotic stress. In antifungal defence, WRKYs reinforce pattern- and effector-triggered …

2nd Place Research Paper: Shaping The Ape: Storytelling, Cultural Reflection, And Boundary Negotiation In Human-Ape Zoo Encounters, Abigail Bond Halling

Kevin and Tam Ross Undergraduate Research Prize

The typical Western zoo functions as a unique environment in which animals are frequently positioned as subjects of education and entertainment through the medium of storytelling. In this sense, the zoological institution can also be read as an extension of popular Western constructions surrounding nonhuman animals, particularly those who are symbolically charged characters in our collective imaginary– the great apes. Given the morphological, behavioral, and psychological similarities between humans and other great apes (chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans), nonhuman great ape enclosures at the Western zoo become spaces where humans are most radically confronted with navigating the boundaries of the “human-animal …

Volume 17, Christian O’Neill, Kyara Greene, Savva Sidorov, Laura Bisaillon, Luke Clemmer, Hannah Gordon, Kitt Benson, Taylor Blount, Rachel Danzitz, Nicholas Duellman, Chase Gionis, Hima Fernando, Seth Franzyshen, Onyx Gonzalez, Bryan Lin, Samantha Start, Ysabel Wells, Maggie Duncan

Incite: The Journal of Undergraduate Scholarship

Introduction Dr. Amorette Barber, Director, Office of Student Research

From the Editor Dr. Hannah Dudley-Shotwell

Cover Artist’s Statement Maggie Duncan

On Mentoring Dr. Yulia Uryadova

Ukrainian Resistance in the Face of Russification: Nestor Makhno and Anarchism

by Christian O’Neill

Life Vest by Kyara Greene

Isolation and 16S rRNA Identification of Bacteria from Fire Department Connection Pipe by Savva Sidorov

The Effectiveness of Planned Exercise in Reducing ADHD Symptoms in Children by Laura Bisaillon & Luke Clemmer

Linguistic Analysis on Confidence and Communication Strategies with Disparities Between Sign Fluency and Hearing Impairment by Hannah Gordon

Freedmen in Indian Territory by Kitt …

Targeting Breast Cancer Brain Metastasis Through Novel Combination Of Fda-Approved Orally Active Blood-Brain Barrier Permeable Ret And Tgli1 Inhibitors, Joshua Cha

Dissertations and Theses (Open Access)

Breast cancer is the most diagnosed cancer in American women, and breast cancer brain metastasis (BCBM) exhibits the worst prognoses with a life-expectancy averaging at 6 months. This short life expectancy is largely attributed to the lack of effective treatment. Many challenges remain unsolved, including the limited number of actionable targets for targeted therapy and effective blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeable drugs that are safe without promoting drug resistance. Therefore, there is an urgent call for identification of novel therapeutic targets and development of BBB-permeable drugs. One of the potential targets identified by our lab for BCBM targeted therapy is the …

From Antigen Presentation To Tumor Control: Mechanisms Of Type I Conventional Dendritic Cell-Based Cancer Vaccines, Josue E. Pineda

Dissertations and Theses (Open Access)

Type 1 conventional dendritic cells (cDC1s) are important for generating and sustaining antitumor immunity. Accordingly, the abundance of cDC1s in human tumors correlates with improved outcomes in cancer. Capitalizing on this role, we previously demonstrated that vaccination with in vitro-derived murine cDC1s elicits durable tumor control in multiple preclinical models; however, the immunological mechanisms underlying the efficacy of cDC1 vaccination remain unclear. Here, we examined whether in vitro-derived cDC1s resemble tumor-infiltrating DC populations and whether MHC-I and MHC-II antigen presentation contribute to cDC1-mediated tumor control following vaccination in melanoma.

As expected, MHC-I- or MHC-II-deficiency had minimal impact on …

Optimized Ultrasound Imaging Of Phase-Change Nanodroplets, Charles R Dyall, Dmitry Nevozhay, Andy Liu, Trevor M Mitcham, George J Lu, Konstantin V Sokolov, Richard R Bouchard

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Phase-change nanodroplets (PCNDs) continue to generate significant research interest due to their potential to extravasate into tissue, to be targeted for molecular imaging and drug delivery, and to undergo an induced phase-change to "activated" microbubbles (MBs) for ultrasound (US) imaging. To accurately quantify molecular markers, however, one assumes a consistent proportion of PCNDs in a region of interest (ROI) are stably activated and imaged. Herein we present a framework for developing a diagnostic sequence that is optimized for PCND activation uniformity, contrast, and acquisition time. To develop this framework, activation was examined at three scales of increasing complexity: single, adjacent, …

Abnormal Trafficking And Processing Of Multiple Matrix Metalloproteinases Drive Cartilage Defects In Congenital Disorders Of Glycosylation, Chia-Lun Wu

All Dissertations

Congenital Disorders of Glycosylation (CDG) are rare metabolic diseases caused by defects in glycosylation. Despite identification of over 200 CDG types, the mechanisms linking glycosylation defects to diverse clinical phenotypes remain unclear. This dissertation uses zebrafish models of PMM2-CDG and STT3-CDG to redefine CDG pathogenesis, shifting from a simple glycan deficiency model to one involving disrupted cellular spatial organization.

We identify a protease-dependent pathway underlying craniofacial cartilage defects. Specifically, defective proteolytic processing of N-cadherin, a key adhesion molecule in chondrogenesis, is a central driver of pathology. We further uncover an unconventional trafficking mechanism in which ER stress and altered secretory …

Mechanisms Of Bacterial Glucokinase Inactivation Through Site-Specific Lysine Modification And Chemical Inhibition, Joseph Robert Will Andrews

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Glycolysis and related metabolic pathways are controlled by various post-translational modifications (PTMs) that affect enzyme activity and metabolic flow. In E. coli, glucokinase (GLK) sits at the crossroads of glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway and carries out the first committed step of glycolysis: ATP-dependent phosphorylation of glucose. While it's known that glucose binding causes GLK to close its domains, how phosphate binding, lysine modification, and small-molecule inhibitors regulate GLK's shape and function is still not fully understood. Here, I combine structural biochemistry and enzymology to figure out how phosphate binding, specific mutations, and chemical inhibitors affect E. coli GLK. …

Unravelling Taxonomic Complexity In Elusive Cetaceans: Mitogenome Insights Into Evolutionary History And Cryptic Diversity Of Bryde's Whales, Dominique Paynee, Paulette Bloomer, Gwenith Penry, Simon Elwen, Ada Natoli, Vaisakh Dhanalakshmy, Thyago Cardoso, Els Vermeulen

All Works

Cetaceans, despite their ability to cross wide distances, enabling mostly high levels of gene flow, can develop unique genetic lineages driven by variations in life-history traits, diverse migratory routes and local adaptation, complicating taxonomy and delineation of conservation units. Comprehensive genetic data are essential to overcome the challenges of obtaining suitable sample sizes from wild cetaceans while untangling cryptic species diversity. The Bryde's whale (Balaenoptera edeni) has a complicated discovery and taxonomic history that hinders accurate conservation assessments. In southern Africa, two populations are recognised: the inshore (SAi) and the offshore southeast Atlantic population (SEA). This study examines their phylogenetic …

Feeding Ecology In Coastal Systems, Randi L. Cannon

Graduate Theses and Dissertations (2019 - present)

Oysters (Crassostrea virginica) are critical foundation species in estuaries, providing numerous ecological and economic benefits. However, oyster populations have diminished worldwide. Effective oyster restoration and aquaculture require a mechanistic understanding of the physiological and environmental factors that govern oyster feeding, growth, and resilience under changing coastal conditions. We investigated how oyster ploidy and environmental conditions influenced oyster feeding and investigated how changes in abiotic conditions affected behavioral performance of oyster drills (Stramonita spp.), a key oyster predator. To better understand feeding responses and behaviors of both predator and prey we 1) used in-situ filter feeding assays to determine if feeding …

Ecological Insights And Management Implications Of The Global Migratory Connectivity Of Green Turtles, Jaime Restrepo, Dina Nisthar, Harris Wei-Khang Heng, Lily K. Bentley, Corrie Curtice, Sarah Deland, Ei Fujioka, Patrick N. Halpin, Sarah K. Poulin, Roldán A. Valverde

School of Earth, Environmental, & Marine Sciences Faculty Publications

Aim

Green turtles are a widely distributed and highly migratory species; despite extensive data on their movement, there is no species-specific global synthesis on the subject. Based on three decades of published literature and building on previous global analyses, we developed a global network model of migratory connectivity for green turtles to better understand their spatial biology.

Location

Global.

Time Period

1990–2022.

Major Taxa Studied

Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas).

Methods

We conducted a structured literature review extracting georeferenced information on the movement of green turtles from 1990 to 2022, aggregating this information into a single connectivity model, …

Exploring The Spectrum Of Anxiety During Concussion Recovery: A Comprehensive Examination Of Symptom-Based Anxiety Disorders, Kori J. Durfee

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Background: Anxiety is common following a concussion, arising from both psychosocial and physiological changes, and can manifest in diverse ways. Despite its complexity and association with worse outcomes, post-concussion anxiety is often assessed as a single construct. Characterizing anxiety presentations following injury may improve the identification of clinically meaningful symptoms and help inform future targeted interventions that can improve concussion outcomes. Purpose: The primary purpose was to determine if symptom-based anxiety disorders occur in adults with concussion and identify pre- and post-injury predictors associated with these disorders. Additionally, the clinical utility and predictive abilities of symptom-based anxiety disorders and variability …

Analyzing The Effects Of Message Testing On The Public's Opinion About Gene Editing In Agriculture And Medicine, Luke Sanford Wimpy

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

This paper will present results from the final survey of a multi-stage project examining factors that influence opinions about gene editing in agriculture and medicine. In this final survey, 3,200 U.S. respondents were recruited and randomized to view one of eight videos that communicated the safety of gene editing to determine which factors are most influential in changing opinions. The eight videos were designed based on data collected from focus groups and three previous surveys in this multi-stage project. The eight videos varied by three attributes: messenger, message, and application. The messenger in the videos was either a researcher or …

Sensing Rna’S Conformation With A Solid-State Nanopore Device At Various Ph And Temperature, Haopeng Li

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

This study uses solid-state nanopore technology to investigate the stability and dynamics of RNA molecules under thermal stress and pH fluctuations. Two distinct mRNA samples were analyzed: (1) heat shock protein (HSP)-encoding mRNA extracted from Sulfolobus solfataricus P2, a thermophilic archaeon inhabiting extreme environments such as geothermal sulfuric hot springs (pH < 4, temperature range: 65–90°C), and (2) total RNA extracted from White Leghorn chickens, which thrive under standard physiological conditions. ΦX174 virion single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) were included as a comparative reference. Nanopores, fabricated in silicon nitride membranes, were used to electrically characterize the structural properties of individual RNA molecules in solution, close to their native environments. The nanopore membrane separates two chambers containing salt buffer solution, where ionic current is the primary measurement parameter. When a voltage bias is applied across the membrane, ion flow and an ionic current can be measured. Charged RNA molecules driven translocation through the nanopore induces pore resistance changes, resulting in detectable current blockade events. Variations in these events provide insights into RNA secondary structure and conformational dynamics. By systematically altering pH and temperature, this study elucidates the effects of environmental stressors on RNA stability and structural integrity. The findings reveal distinct responses between thermophilic HSP-encoding mRNA and mesophilic RNA, underscoring the adaptive mechanisms of thermophilic RNA under extreme conditions. These results contribute to a better understanding of RNA behavior under stress and establish a foundation for future applications in RNA-based diagnostics and biotechnology development.

Nadh Flim Reveals Cellular Bioenergetics And Mitochondrial Morphology During Drosophila Convergent Extension, Maria Espana Pena

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles that can fragment or fuse to support different bioenergetic demands and cellular processes, although the role of mitochondrial fission and fusion during embryonic development is not well understood. Fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) of the mitochondrial cofactor NADH can be used to visualize mitochondrial networks and infer aspects of cellular bioenergetics in a label-free manner. We used NADH FLIM to test whether germband cells undergo changes in cellular metabolism during Drosophila convergent extension (CE)––a process in which hundreds of epithelial cells undergo coordinated intercalation to elongate the embryo. Contrary to our expectations, we did not observe significant …

Conservation Wins And Woes: A Meta-Synthesis Of Ecotourism Impacts On Primates And Local Communities, Madison Lanie Mckinniss

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Biodiversity assessments identify 612 extant species of primate, but ~50% of these species are at risk of extinction. Threats include agricultural and industrial production, urban development, and poaching. As concerns have grown regarding impacts on the environment, researchers have proposed ecotourism as a tool for conserving ecosystems while improving human welfare. Although conservation initiatives are pursued at these ecotourist sites, the presence of humans can cause additional influences on non-human primates (NHP). Primatologists have posed questions regarding implications of ecotourism on NHP, but research remains scarce. This study will investigate the practices executed at ecotourist sites where endemic NHPs reside. …

Integrating Nutrition Education To Improve The Effectiveness And Sustainability Of Makan Bergizi Gratis Programs, Akifa Laila Rusyda, Dewi Firda Sari, Ida Fransiska Pandiangan, Putri Mulifajar Gintings

Indonesian Journal of Public Health Nutrition (IJPHN)

The Makan Bergizi Gratis (MBG) program represents Indonesia's strategic effort to strengthen human capital by addressing malnutrition among school-aged. However, evidence suggests that school feeding alone is insufficient without structured nutrition education to promote sustained behavioral change. The present study examines opportunities and feasibility for embedding nutrition education within MBG implementation. Two-stage design was performed, including curriculum content reviews and qualitative case study design. A systematic curriculum content analysis was conducted across the school-based curriculum (KTSP) (2006), K-13 curriculum (2013 – 2017), and the Merdeka curriculum (2022 - present), using predefined nutrition competencies and behavioral domains as analytical frameworks. Purposive …

Mapping Mgmt Methylation Sites That May Predict Chemotherapy Success In Glioblastoma, Kennedy Bueno

Celebrating Scholarship and Creativity Day (2018-)

Glioblastoma is the most common malignant primary brain tumor in adults, with a median survival of 15 months post-diagnosis. Resistance to standard temozolomide (TMZ) chemotherapy is common and is strongly influenced by O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT), a DNA repair enzyme that reverses TMZ induced DNA damage. Reduced MGMT expression is associated with greater TMZ sensitivity and improved survival. Although MGMT promoter cytosine-phosphate-guanine dinucleotide (CpG) methylation is linked to treatment response, the individual CpG sites responsible for MGMT silencing remain unclear. This research aims to identify which sites are necessary to suppress MGMT expression and increase TMZ sensitivity. This project will map …

Creating A Unique Hemoglobin-Based Oxygen Carrier, Clayton Fuller

Celebrating Scholarship and Creativity Day (2018-)

The purpose of this thesis is to explain the current state of alternative oxygen carriers and propose a new hemoglobin-based oxygen carrier (HBOC) as a blood substitute/ blood therapeutic. Blood donation has drawbacks: risk of spread of infection, short storage time, and blood typing, and the current shortage. There are several possible modifications for hemoglobin to create a carrier (HBOC) which address specific issues related to allowing free hemoglobin to exist extra cellularly. One issue to address is vasoconstriction caused by nitric oxide scavenging, which has been solved by increasing the molecular weight of the HBOC via (co)polymerization, or by …