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Integrating A Teachers’ Instructional Practices Online Database (Tipod) In Pre-Service Teacher Preparation, Dodi Hodges, Gayle Disney, Judy Engelhard Mar 2026

Integrating A Teachers’ Instructional Practices Online Database (Tipod) In Pre-Service Teacher Preparation, Dodi Hodges, Gayle Disney, Judy Engelhard

Teacher Education Journal of South Carolina

The Teachers’ Instructional Practices Online Database (TIPOD) is a project designed for use with pre-service teacher candidates at Coastal Carolina University (CCU). The project requires teacher candidates to research evidence-based strategies from peer-reviewed journals and submit them to an online database that teachers can use in their classrooms. Currently under construction and used for the first time in Spring 2008, TIPOD is an outgrowth of a sister project, the Instructional Practices Online Database (ISOD), which was implemented at Bowling Green State University in 2003 by the senior author. This paper presents the purpose and description of TIPOD, steps for implementation, …


Teacher Retention Across Contexts: Examining Teacher Workforce Stability And Its Impact On Student Outcomes In Traditional Public And Charter Schools In New Jersey, Telia Bennett Mar 2026

Teacher Retention Across Contexts: Examining Teacher Workforce Stability And Its Impact On Student Outcomes In Traditional Public And Charter Schools In New Jersey, Telia Bennett

Seton Hall University Dissertations and Theses (ETDs)

Teacher retention remains a critical factor in understanding disparities in student outcomes across school systems. This study examines the relationship between four-year teacher retention and student outcomes in New Jersey, with particular attention to differences between traditional public schools and charter schools. The study includes approximately 4,003 district-level observations across 670 school systems and includes six years of data (2018–2019 through 2023–2024) from the New Jersey School Performance Reports,

Findings indicate that higher rates of four-year teacher retention are generally associated with improved ELA proficiency and lower rates of chronic absenteeism, although the strength and statistical significance of these relationships …


The Effectiveness Of Wordwall-Integrated Game-Based Learning On Elementary School Students' Science And Social Studies (Ipas) Learning Outcomes, Maryanah Maryanah, Aynin Mashfufah, Riska Pristiani Mar 2026

The Effectiveness Of Wordwall-Integrated Game-Based Learning On Elementary School Students' Science And Social Studies (Ipas) Learning Outcomes, Maryanah Maryanah, Aynin Mashfufah, Riska Pristiani

Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan

The implementation of IPAS learning at the elementary school level is still dominated by one-way learning strategies with limited media support. This condition has an impact on the low level of student activity, resulting in suboptimal conceptual understanding, especially for abstract material such as food chains. This study aims to examine the effect of applying digital game-based learning integrated with Wordwall on the IPAS learning outcomes of fifth-grade elementary school students. The research used a quantitative approach with a quasi-experimental design, involving a treatment group and a comparison group with equivalent initial abilities. Data collection was carried out using a …


Multimodal Construction Of Ideational Meaning On Opening Pages Of English Textbooks In China, Yudie Wei, Uti Aryanti Mar 2026

Multimodal Construction Of Ideational Meaning On Opening Pages Of English Textbooks In China, Yudie Wei, Uti Aryanti

Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan

This study aims to examine how ideational meaning is multimodally constructed on 31 opening pages through the interaction of theme images and Look and Share questions in four newly published junior high school English textbooks by People’s Education Press. Adopting the multimodal discourse analytic approach, the study analyzed representational processes in 32 images using Visual Grammar and ideational processes in 97 verbal interrogatives through transitivity patterns. The findings show that opening page images are predominantly narrative, frequently foregrounding action and reactional processes. The verbal questions, in contrast, show a strong tendency toward mental processes, while material and relational processes also …


Exploring Rural Educator's Perceptions Of Educational Accountability Measures In Alabama, Steven Sims Ii Mar 2026

Exploring Rural Educator's Perceptions Of Educational Accountability Measures In Alabama, Steven Sims Ii

College of Education

This qualitative study will examine rural stakeholders' perceptions of the educational accountability measures implemented by the state of Alabama, including Alabama’s adoption of mandatory retention laws, specifically the Alabama Numeracy and Literacy Act, accountability tests such as the Alabama Comprehensive Assessment Program (ACAP), the ACT, and the College and Career Readiness Standards (CCRS), as well as how these initiatives impact the process of identifying and labeling schools as failing. This research explores stakeholders' perceptions of the efficacy of these policies. Through semi-structured interviews with 21 educators (20 teachers and one principal) from rural Black Belt schools, the study aims to …


Analysing Numeracy Demands In Alberta Curriculum: A Focus On High School Mathematics, Asia Majeed, Kwesi Yaro Mar 2026

Analysing Numeracy Demands In Alberta Curriculum: A Focus On High School Mathematics, Asia Majeed, Kwesi Yaro

Numeracy

In recent years, numeracy has been recognized as a key educational priority across the curriculum in many international jurisdictions, including almost all Canadian provinces. In Alberta province, Canada, for example, the Teaching Quality Standard (TQS) #3 explicitly states that all teachers are responsible for fostering literacy and numeracy skills, regardless of the specific subject areas they teach. This expanded focus reflects a broader understanding of numeracy not merely as a subset of mathematical skills, but as a fundamental competency that supports informed participation in civic, economic, and personal life. This paper applies the 21st Century Numeracy Model (Goos et al., …


Cv: Seung Kim (Literacy-Instructional Technology), Seung Kim Mar 2026

Cv: Seung Kim (Literacy-Instructional Technology), Seung Kim

Education Department Faculty Curricula Vitae

No abstract provided.


2026 March 11 - Undergraduate Curriculum Council Minutes, Undergraduate Curriculum Council, East Tennessee State University Mar 2026

2026 March 11 - Undergraduate Curriculum Council Minutes, Undergraduate Curriculum Council, East Tennessee State University

Undergraduate Curriculum Council Minutes

No abstract provided.


Understanding Math-Anxious Teachers' Stories Of Comfort, Competence, And Confidence With Learning And Teaching Mathematics, Deborah Peart Crayton Mar 2026

Understanding Math-Anxious Teachers' Stories Of Comfort, Competence, And Confidence With Learning And Teaching Mathematics, Deborah Peart Crayton

USF Tampa Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Math anxiety is a complex issue that affects students and teachers. It has been researched for decades, but the focus has often been on addressing math anxiety in students, while finding solutions to support elementary teachers experiencing math anxiety has been overlooked. This study fills a gap in existing research by shedding light on math anxiety in elementary education and highlighting ways to address it by leveraging existing structures that support professional development. This qualitative narrative inquiry explores the experiences of four elementary educators who identify as math-anxious and how they report that math anxiety impacts their confidence in teaching …


Self-Efficacy Traits Of First Year Corequisite Math Students: A Phenomenological Study, Johnny Reed Fleming Mar 2026

Self-Efficacy Traits Of First Year Corequisite Math Students: A Phenomenological Study, Johnny Reed Fleming

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to understand better the self-efficacy traits of first-year corequisite mathematics students at a regional, private, liberal arts university located in central Appalachia. The theory guiding this study is Bandura’s social cognitive theory as it pertains to participants’ beliefs in their ability to succeed in a college-level mathematics course and their perceived self-efficacy and reciprocal determinism regarding that success. The research questions in this study were designed to examine the perceived self-efficacy, factors of reciprocal determinism, and attitudes of students who experienced success in a credit-bearing mathematics course in college while subsequently enrolled in …


Understanding The Lived Experiences Of Black Male Students’ Use Of Integrated Educational Technologies In Stem Fields At Predominately White Institutions: A Phenomenological Study, Devon Morgan Mar 2026

Understanding The Lived Experiences Of Black Male Students’ Use Of Integrated Educational Technologies In Stem Fields At Predominately White Institutions: A Phenomenological Study, Devon Morgan

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this transcendental phenomenological study is to understand the lived experiences of Black male students' use of integrated educational technologies in STEM fields at predominately White institutions of higher education in East Tennessee. The theory guiding this study is Piaget's (1950) theory on constructivism, as it is the framework through which active learning, prior knowledge, and social influences shape students' learning. The central research question addressed in the study is how Black male students experience the use of integrated educational technologies in STEM fields at PWIs of higher education in East Tennessee. The transcendental phenomenological approach is used …


Examining The Effect Of Enhanced Retrieval Practice With Or Without Artificial Intelligence On Task Value And Self-Efficacy Of College Students: A Quasi-Experimental Study, Duane N. Stutzman Mar 2026

Examining The Effect Of Enhanced Retrieval Practice With Or Without Artificial Intelligence On Task Value And Self-Efficacy Of College Students: A Quasi-Experimental Study, Duane N. Stutzman

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this quantitative quasi-experimental study was to determine if a significant difference exists in college students perceived task value and self-efficacy when using different forms of retrieval practice enhanced with or without artificial intelligence. This study is important because task value and self-efficacy may have an impact on student motivation and engagement; therefore, the study adds to the literature demonstrating that retrieval practice can help improve active, rather than passive learning. The sample was composed of 140 undergraduate students enrolled in a hybrid health science course at a large university in the Midwest. After participants completed their assigned …


A Quantitative Quasi-Experimental Study To Determine The Effectiveness Of Ufli And Iready Interventions For Third Grade Struggling Readers, Vada Kehrer Mar 2026

A Quantitative Quasi-Experimental Study To Determine The Effectiveness Of Ufli And Iready Interventions For Third Grade Struggling Readers, Vada Kehrer

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this quantitative quasi-experimental pretest-posttest study was to determine whether there is a significant difference in the growth in reading proficiency among third-grade struggling readers receiving different reading intervention programs: the University of Florida Literacy Institute (UFLI) or i-Ready curriculum-based interventions. The study is important because the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) has reported a concerning decline in literacy rates, particularly among students with dyslexia. The persistence of decline in reading proficiency stresses the urgent need for effective reading interventions. This study contributes to the existing literature on reading intervention programs for struggling readers. The sample included …


Teachers' Lived Experiences Addressing The Benefits And Challenges Of Screen Based Technology Use In The Classroom: A Transcendental Phenomenological Study, Amanda M. Thompson Mar 2026

Teachers' Lived Experiences Addressing The Benefits And Challenges Of Screen Based Technology Use In The Classroom: A Transcendental Phenomenological Study, Amanda M. Thompson

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The researcher explored Title I elementary school teachers’ lived experiences in addressing the challenges and benefits of screen based technology (SBT) use in classroom spaces. Guided by Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural learning theory, a transcendental phenomenological approach was utilized by the researcher to explore the unique nuances of different learning spaces, buildings, and educational contexts. As SBT has become indispensable to modern education practitioners, teachers must balance the benefits to student learning with screen fatigue, reduced interpersonal interaction, and access disparities. The central research question states: How do Title I elementary school teachers describe their lived experiences in addressing SBT use …


A Quantitative Causal-Comparative Study Of The Effect Of Dynamic Versus Static Visualization And Gender On Middle School Teachers' Mathematics Anxiety, Daniel Kobina Lindsay Mar 2026

A Quantitative Causal-Comparative Study Of The Effect Of Dynamic Versus Static Visualization And Gender On Middle School Teachers' Mathematics Anxiety, Daniel Kobina Lindsay

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this quantitative causal-comparative study was to determine if there is a significant difference in teachers' mathematics anxiety on the effect of instruction-based dynamic versus static visualization and gender among teachers in middle schools. This study is critical because it addresses policies and pedagogical practices that address mathematics anxiety among middle school teachers. The gender of teachers and the medium of instructional delivery play a crucial role in assessing these teachers' engagement and achievement in the United States educational system. The sample (n = 293) was composed of teachers, divided into groups based on their instruction method and …


A Transcendental Phenomenological Study Of Cognitive Overload In Manufacturing Engineers During Online Training In An Industrial Environment, Sarah J. May Mar 2026

A Transcendental Phenomenological Study Of Cognitive Overload In Manufacturing Engineers During Online Training In An Industrial Environment, Sarah J. May

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this transcendental phenomenological study was to explore experiences of cognitive overload among engineers in manufacturing during digital training in industrial environments. Engineers in manufacturing manage substantial physical and cognitive demands in order to maintain safe and efficient industrial environments. In addition to these responsibilities, engineers are often expected to engage in digital training within active work settings, frequently without physical or cognitive separation from job-related tasks. A qualitative research design was employed, with data collected from 10 participants and analyzed through triangulation and thematic coding. Data collection methods included a qualitative questionnaire, individual interviews, and a letter-writing …


The Exploration Of Parental Involvement On Student Academic Achievement From The Perspective Of The Educator: A Phenomenological Study, Kwame Vladamir Hennagan Mar 2026

The Exploration Of Parental Involvement On Student Academic Achievement From The Perspective Of The Educator: A Phenomenological Study, Kwame Vladamir Hennagan

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the lived experiences of educators regarding parental involvement in a rural South Carolina school district. Guided by Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory and Epstein's Parental Involvement Theory frameworks, the study examined how teachers perceive, promote, and experience parental engagement, and what barriers influence effective collaboration between school and home. The Central Research Question answered in the study is: What are the lived experiences of educators with students with low parental involvement at a local school district in South Carolina? The methodology of this manuscript begins with the phenomenological research design.The sample size included …


A Qualitative Case Study Of Teachers’ Responses And Adaptation To How They Transitioned From Traditional Classrooms To Partial Or Full Virtual Learning Environments Post Covid-19, Kaprice L. Smith Mar 2026

A Qualitative Case Study Of Teachers’ Responses And Adaptation To How They Transitioned From Traditional Classrooms To Partial Or Full Virtual Learning Environments Post Covid-19, Kaprice L. Smith

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to understand the responses and adaptation process for public school teachers in a southern state that transitioned from traditional classrooms to full or partial online learning environments post-COVID-19. The theory that guided this study was the Theory of Adaptation of Educators Teaching Technology-Based Courses, which theorizes that educators experience phases of transformation visioning, learning, rationalizing and doing, and modernizing that foster resilience and adaptability within evolving educational landscapes (Pinatil & Ramos, 2023). Guided by the social constructivist paradigm, the study examined how teachers adjusted instructional strategies, demonstrated emotional resilience, and integrated technology …


Structures, Strategies, And Skills For Effective Math Intervention, Sean Dean, Patty Witkowsky, Jessica Contreras, Michelle Kephart Mar 2026

Structures, Strategies, And Skills For Effective Math Intervention, Sean Dean, Patty Witkowsky, Jessica Contreras, Michelle Kephart

Journal of Academic Underperformance

Many factors influence students’ readiness for college math, and some students enter college unprepared for the demands of their math courses. Effective placement strategies and robust support systems are essential for student success and degree completion. This qualitative narrative case study explores the experiences of college students working with a Math Learning Strategies Specialist (MLSS) and the specific strategies taught by the MLSS. Through one-on-one interviews, three key themes emerged: learning structures, strategies, and interpersonal skills. The MLSS contributed to participants' experiences by providing structured yet flexible support, tailored learning strategies, and a positive interpersonal environment. These combined elements enabled …


Redesigning Online Graduate Orientation To Foster Academic Resilience And Prevent Underperformance, Stella Michael-Makri, David E. Rodriguez Mar 2026

Redesigning Online Graduate Orientation To Foster Academic Resilience And Prevent Underperformance, Stella Michael-Makri, David E. Rodriguez

Journal of Academic Underperformance

Graduate students in fully online programs often begin their academic journey without adequate preparation for the emotional, structural, and cultural challenges of graduate-level work. For students who are first-generation, racially marginalized, international, or returning to education after time away, this lack of scaffolding can lead to early disengagement, underperformance, or attrition. Orientation, often treated as a checklist of logistical tasks, represents a missed opportunity for meaningful academic intervention. This manuscript proposes a five-module conceptual model for online graduate orientation designed to proactively support online graduate students in the domains of emotional regulation and academic identity, time management and executive functioning, …


The Collaborative Development Of Core Vocabulary In International English-Medium Early Childhood Teacher Education, Muhammad Qureshi, Kay Gallagher, Michael Bowles, Jenny Eppard Mar 2026

The Collaborative Development Of Core Vocabulary In International English-Medium Early Childhood Teacher Education, Muhammad Qureshi, Kay Gallagher, Michael Bowles, Jenny Eppard

All Works

This paper serves as a guide for the development of contextually relevant word lists and word guides for English-medium early childhood teacher education programs internationally. Such resources are particularly important for English-medium programs in higher education settings where English is typically a second or foreign language for students, and where limited vocabulary knowledge can curtail learning. In the context of an undergraduate early childhood teacher education program at an English-medium university in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), a rapidly modernizing Gulf state with a new interest in early childhood education, language, and content teachers co-developed word lists for Arabic-speaking students …


Measuring What Matters: Specifications Grading And Latin* Students’ Mathematics Identity, Luis Miguel Fernández, Mayra Ortiz Galarza, Cristina Villalobos, Martha Asare Mar 2026

Measuring What Matters: Specifications Grading And Latin* Students’ Mathematics Identity, Luis Miguel Fernández, Mayra Ortiz Galarza, Cristina Villalobos, Martha Asare

School of Mathematical & Statistical Sciences Faculty Publications

This study examined Specifications Grading, an alternative grading system emphasizing clearly defined learning outcomes and revision, and mathematics identity among 846 Latin* Calculus I students at a Hispanic-Serving Institution. Mathematics identity, comprising competence/performance, recognition, and interest, was measured at the beginning and end of the semester. Repeated-measures analyses indicated stable competence/performance and recognition alongside declines in interest. Specifications Grading was associated with increased mathematics identity, and multilingual students experienced smaller declines than their peers overall.

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Este estudio examinó la calificación por especificaciones, un sistema de evaluación alternativo que enfatiza resultados de aprendizaje claramente definidos y oportunidades estructuradas de revisión, …


Analysis Of Student Satisfaction With The Ppg Student Registration Process At Universitas Negeri Malang Using The Servqual And Delone & Mclean Models, Dedi Prestiadi, Darmawan Satyananda, Dedi Tiarno Mar 2026

Analysis Of Student Satisfaction With The Ppg Student Registration Process At Universitas Negeri Malang Using The Servqual And Delone & Mclean Models, Dedi Prestiadi, Darmawan Satyananda, Dedi Tiarno

Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan

This study aims to analyze student satisfaction levels with the Teacher Professional Education (PPG) registration system at Universitas Negeri Malang using an integration of the SERVQUAL and DeLone & McLean models, as well as to develop a strategy for Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) using Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle. This study uses a descriptive quantitative approach with 10,701 student respondents from three registration stages (BGT 1, Kemenag, and BGT 2). The data collection instrument is a 1–5 Likert questionnaire covering three main aspects: requirements, process, and registration application. Data analysis was conducted through validity and reliability tests, multiple linear regression, and Principal …


Reexamined Costs: A More Comprehensive Evaluation Of Economic Growth In Michigan’S Teaching Of High School United States History, Kelsee Hyble Mar 2026

Reexamined Costs: A More Comprehensive Evaluation Of Economic Growth In Michigan’S Teaching Of High School United States History, Kelsee Hyble

Masters Projects

The Michigan Department of Education social studies standards were crafted with the primary goal of promoting “the knowledge, skills, intellectual processes, and dispositions required of people to be actively engaged in fulfilling their responsibility of civic participation” (Michigan Department of Education, 2019, p.3).  The “Purpose of Social Studies” section goes on to explain that, “As members of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world, young people need to learn how to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good” (Michigan Department of Education, 2019, p.3). While the standards provide an accurate explanation of how the United States …


Building A Better Landscape For Research Dissemination, Scott Horowitz Mar 2026

Building A Better Landscape For Research Dissemination, Scott Horowitz

Chemistry and Biochemistry: Faculty Scholarship

Let’s take a moment to think about where we’ve come to in scientific publishing. Once upon a time, journals and their publishers played an absolutely critical role in science’s growth and successes.  Many journal publishers are for-profit enterprises, and they still want to make profits even if they no longer serve an important purpose. By controlling the information, they can still force people to pay for services that are obsolete and manipulate the system in ways that stymie progress to maintain their market. Open access did not have the power to change this. Altogether, things are in bad shape. I …


Using Paired Queer Literature To Foster Critical Literacy And Intersectionality, Ferial Pearson, Jennifer L. Lemke Mar 2026

Using Paired Queer Literature To Foster Critical Literacy And Intersectionality, Ferial Pearson, Jennifer L. Lemke

Journal of Curriculum, Teaching, Learning and Leadership in Education

This article explores the use of paired queer literature as a tool for fostering critical literacy and intersectional understanding in K–12 educational settings. Grounded in the belief that literature should serve as both a mirror and a window for students (Bishop, 1990), the paper argues for the inclusion of LGBTQ+ narratives to challenge dominant heteronormative frameworks that pervade U.S. school culture. By pairing texts that reflect diverse sexual orientations, gender identities, and intersecting social identities, educators can cultivate inclusive classrooms that affirm all students’ experiences. The paper provides a framework for selecting high-quality, developmentally appropriate LGBTQ+ texts across grade levels …


High School Teachers’ Perspectives Of Middle School Biomedical Science Career Exploration Programs, Stephanie Gurule-Leyba Mar 2026

High School Teachers’ Perspectives Of Middle School Biomedical Science Career Exploration Programs, Stephanie Gurule-Leyba

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Biomedical sciences (BMS) are a common career pathway for U.S. Hispanic high school students interested in pursuing healthcare careers. Little was known about how middle school career exploration programs in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics motivate Hispanic students to continue pursuing BMS careers. The purpose of this basic qualitative study was to explore high school teachers’ perspectives of how middle school BMS career exploration programs can motivate Hispanic students’ interest in BMS careers. The study was grounded in Keller’s attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction motivation model. Thirteen high school BMS teachers, who have taught or are currently teaching the PLTW …


Examining Academics’ Decision-Making Processes And Implementation Challenges Of Blended Learning Models For Future Higher Education, Devrim Akgunduz, Aysegul Kinik Topalsan Mar 2026

Examining Academics’ Decision-Making Processes And Implementation Challenges Of Blended Learning Models For Future Higher Education, Devrim Akgunduz, Aysegul Kinik Topalsan

Higher Learning Research Communications

Objectives: Blended learning has gained increasing attention in higher education as a hybrid approach that integrates face-to-face and online modalities. This study investigates academics’ decision-making processes and challenges in implementing blended learning models to inform future educational practices.

Methods: An exploratory case study design was employed. Data were obtained from academics representing multiple faculties who participated in a professional development program on technological approaches and learning models. Participants completed the Blended Learning Sub-Model Preparation Form, which was analyzed to identify preferences and challenges in adopting blended learning.

Results: Findings reveal a clear preference for sub-models such as the flipped classroom, …


New Hampshire K–6th Grade Teachers’ Mathematics Professional Development Experiences On Classroom Instruction, Danielle C. Nutting Mar 2026

New Hampshire K–6th Grade Teachers’ Mathematics Professional Development Experiences On Classroom Instruction, Danielle C. Nutting

Doctor of Education Program Dissertations

This phenomenological study explored the experiences of public school elementary teachers in New Hampshire who participated in math professional development. The problem this study addressed was students in U.S. public elementary schools have not made sufficient progress in mathematics (The Nation’s Report Card, 2022) and lack of progress in mathematics has been attributed to teachers not receiving adequate professional development in this subject area (Campbell & Griffin, 2017). Analysis of seven semistructured participant interviews revealed four findings: (a) elementary teachers understood the significance of an effective math coach; (b) elementary teachers recognized when their professional learning communities were not effective; …


Numerals And Other Means Of Expressing Plurality In Language And Thought: A Developmental Perspective Across Cultures., Giovanni Giuseppe G.G. Nicosia Prof. Mar 2026

Numerals And Other Means Of Expressing Plurality In Language And Thought: A Developmental Perspective Across Cultures., Giovanni Giuseppe G.G. Nicosia Prof.

Numeracy

Several ancient languages use linguistic structures to differentiate between singular, dual, and plural forms that are used when one, two, or many objects are referenced. (Some languages go further, adding a trial form to differentiate two from three.) In many modern languages, numerals are used to convey precise number. After reviewing a range of ways languages express number (including the interesting case of Pirahã which does not express precise number), the paper concludes with a proposed developmental path for the expression of quantity in languages.