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Full-Text Articles in Sociology

La Ausencia/Presencia De La Asexualidad Y La Sexualnormatividad En La Educación Sexual Integral En Las Escuelas Secundarias En La Ciudad Autónoma De Buenos Aires / The Absence/Presence Of Asexuality And Sexualnormativity In Comprehensive Sexual Education In Secondary Schools In The Autonomous City Of Buenos Aires, Marin Hart Apr 2023

La Ausencia/Presencia De La Asexualidad Y La Sexualnormatividad En La Educación Sexual Integral En Las Escuelas Secundarias En La Ciudad Autónoma De Buenos Aires / The Absence/Presence Of Asexuality And Sexualnormativity In Comprehensive Sexual Education In Secondary Schools In The Autonomous City Of Buenos Aires, Marin Hart

Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection

Este proyecto investiga el lugar de la asexualidad en la Educación Sexual Integral en el nivel medio en la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Desde una mirada basada en la teoría queer, este trabajo analiza los lineamientos curriculares del nivel medio y entrevistas a personas involucradas en la ESI, y concluye que la asexualidad, como todas las identidades queer, no aparece en los lineamientos y aparece muy poco en la ESI en general. Además, cuando aparecen las identidades queer en la ESI, se presentan dentro del marco de la tolerancia y no discriminación, y por el modo de hacerlo, terminan …


Medical Student Sensitivity Training On The Differences In Sex Development, Paul Endres, Deborah Ziring, Dimitrios Papanagnou Sep 2022

Medical Student Sensitivity Training On The Differences In Sex Development, Paul Endres, Deborah Ziring, Dimitrios Papanagnou

Student Papers, Posters & Projects

No abstract provided.


The Current Status Of Women In Morocco And How It Can Be Improved, Amanda Maia Apr 2022

The Current Status Of Women In Morocco And How It Can Be Improved, Amanda Maia

Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection

My paper will explore the conditions of gender minorities in Morocco through representation, NGOs, social structures, and resources therein to support the progress of acquiring more rights for these demographics. With an emphasis on the status of women in Morocco. My main questions as it stands are: What are the living conditions for women in Morocco and how can they be improved? What progress has been and still can be made to improve the quality of life and foster joy for these demographics in Morocco? Since the 1990s, there has been significant progress in Morocco to improve Family Law and …


Educational Preparedness To Care For Transgender And Gender Diverse Adults: Perspectives Of Mental Health Professionals, Sharon N. Obasi, Robyn E. King, Natalie R. Holt, Richard Mocarski, Debra A. Hope, Nathan Woodruff Jan 2022

Educational Preparedness To Care For Transgender And Gender Diverse Adults: Perspectives Of Mental Health Professionals, Sharon N. Obasi, Robyn E. King, Natalie R. Holt, Richard Mocarski, Debra A. Hope, Nathan Woodruff

Trans Collaborations Academic Papers

Ensuring that mental health professionals are appropriately trained to provide affirming and sensitive care to transgender and gender diverse (TGD) adults is one mechanism that may reduce the marginalization sometimes experienced by TGD adults in mental health contexts. In this study, mental health professionals (n = 142) completed an online survey documenting the sources and types of training received to provide TGD-sensitive care; and, shared a self-assessment of their comfort, competence, and ability to provide TGD-sensitive care. Findings revealed that the majority of the mental health professionals in the study (approximately 81%) received specific training to work with TGD …


Endline Results Brief: What Works To Improve Outcomes For Kenya's Adolescent Girls?, Population Council Mar 2021

Endline Results Brief: What Works To Improve Outcomes For Kenya's Adolescent Girls?, Population Council

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

The Adolescent Girls Initiative–Kenya is a study that evaluates the long-term impact of a multisectoral intervention targeted at adolescent girls aged 11 to 15 years from Kibera and rural Wajir. The intervention consists of four components: a community-based violence-prevention program, an education conditional cash transfer (CCT), health-focused girls-empowerment clubs, and wealth creation for girls via financial education and savings. A random selection of 6,000 girls were exposed to different components of the intervention. Key results, noted in this brief, are: conditional cash transfers are a key driver of improvement in education outcomes, and of delaying sexual debut and pregnancy in …


The Adolescent Girls Initiative-Kenya—Executive Summary: Two-Year Follow Up Results, Population Council Mar 2021

The Adolescent Girls Initiative-Kenya—Executive Summary: Two-Year Follow Up Results, Population Council

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

In Kenya, early pregnancy is a challenge for girls that often has immediate effects on their educational opportunities, future implications for their social, health, and economic outcomes, and immediate and ongoing negative impacts on their children. Early pregnancy is an outcome shaped by a myriad of issues affecting an adolescent girl’s life—including community norms on gender roles, violence, and the social value of girls; barriers to formal education; household poverty; lack of economic independence; experience of violence; and social isolation. For girls to achieve well-being in early and late adolescence, no single-sector intervention—whether it be education, health, wealth creation, or …


Associations Between Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting And Early/Child Marriage: A Multi-Country Dhs/Mics Analysis, Jamlick Karumbi, David Gathara Jan 2020

Associations Between Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting And Early/Child Marriage: A Multi-Country Dhs/Mics Analysis, Jamlick Karumbi, David Gathara

Reproductive Health

Over the last several decades, global efforts to end female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) have intensified through the combined efforts of international and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), governments, and religious and civil society groups. Evidence of the wider impacts of FGM/C and interventions for its abandonment is small but emerging. The practice of FGM/C has frequently been linked to a girl’s marriageability and is thought to be associated with child marriage, either directly, as a cause of early/child marriage, or vice versa, or indirectly, resulting from common causes. Evidence of the relationships between these two practices to inform programming and policy for …


On The Margins Of Friendship: Aggression In An Elementary School Peer Group, Brent D. Harger Aug 2019

On The Margins Of Friendship: Aggression In An Elementary School Peer Group, Brent D. Harger

Sociology Faculty Publications

This article uses qualitative data from a larger study of two elementary schools in a rural city of about 15,000 people in the Midwestern United States. Here, I focus on a single peer group and those who are on its margins to provide insight into the intersection of friendship, aggression, and masculinity. In doing so, I address the lack of research examining how aggression functions within peer groups and why those who are victimized choose to remain in these groups.


Law School News: Roger Williams Celebrates Pride 06-17-2019, Michael M. Bowden Jun 2019

Law School News: Roger Williams Celebrates Pride 06-17-2019, Michael M. Bowden

Life of the Law School (1993- )

No abstract provided.


Valoriser Le Potentiel Des Mentores : Recrutement, Formation Et Soutien Des Mentores Pour Des Programmes Dédiés Aux Adolescentes, Miriam Temin, Eva Roca Jan 2019

Valoriser Le Potentiel Des Mentores : Recrutement, Formation Et Soutien Des Mentores Pour Des Programmes Dédiés Aux Adolescentes, Miriam Temin, Eva Roca

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Les mentores sont une partie importante de nombreux programmes efficaces pour les filles, mais on dispose de peu d’informations sur les aspects pratiques du développement et du soutien d’un cadre de mentore efficace. Cette boîte à outils rassemble des leçons, des conseils et des idées qui peuvent être adaptés et utilisés pour trouver, former, surveiller, soutenir et évaluer les mentores. Les informations sont basées sur des documents provenant de programmes pour les adolescentes mis en œuvre par le Population Council. Les ressources sont applicables aux planificateurs de programmes, aux superviseurs de mentores et aux mentores. Toutes les ressources peuvent être …


Making The Most Of Mentors: Recruitment, Training, And Support Of Mentors For Adolescent Girl Programming—Toolkit, Miriam Temin, Eva Roca Jan 2019

Making The Most Of Mentors: Recruitment, Training, And Support Of Mentors For Adolescent Girl Programming—Toolkit, Miriam Temin, Eva Roca

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Mentors are an important part of many effective programs for girls, yet little information is available about the practical aspects of developing and supporting a successful mentor cadre. This toolkit pulls together lessons, tips, and insights that can be adapted and used to find, train, monitor, support, and evaluate mentors. The information is based on materials from programs for adolescent girls implemented by the Population Council. The resources are applicable to program planners, mentor supervisors, and mentors. All resources may be adapted to local contexts.


More Than Brides Alliance: Midline Evaluation Report, Andrea J. Melnikas, Grace Saul, Santosh Kumar Singh, James Mkandawire, Mouhamadou Gueye, Aissa Diarra, Sajeda Amin Jan 2019

More Than Brides Alliance: Midline Evaluation Report, Andrea J. Melnikas, Grace Saul, Santosh Kumar Singh, James Mkandawire, Mouhamadou Gueye, Aissa Diarra, Sajeda Amin

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

The More than Brides Alliance (MTBA) was formed to bringing together the strengths of a diverse team skilled in adolescent program implementation and research. The goal of the research presented in this report is to promote an evidence-based programmatic approach to delaying marriage in India, Malawi, Mali, Niger, and Pakistan by gathering detailed quantitative and qualitative information from the program areas over time to examine the impact of the present intervention and inform future strategies. This report highlights data from the midline survey on a set of outcomes approximately midway through the MTBA intervention and compares them with the same …


« More Than Brides Alliance (Mtba) » : Rapport D’Évaluation À Mi-Parcours Au Mali Et Au Niger, Andrea J. Melnikas, Grace Saul, Mouhamadou Gueye, Aissa Diarra, Sajeda Amin Jan 2019

« More Than Brides Alliance (Mtba) » : Rapport D’Évaluation À Mi-Parcours Au Mali Et Au Niger, Andrea J. Melnikas, Grace Saul, Mouhamadou Gueye, Aissa Diarra, Sajeda Amin

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

L’Alliance « Plus qu’une épouse » (More Than Brides Alliance—MTBA) a été formée, rassemblant les forces d’une équipe diversifiée, compétente pour la mise en œuvre et la recherche de programmes destinés aux adolescents. Le volet recherche de l’Alliance MTBA vise à fournir des preuves et des connaissances sur ce qui fonctionne pour retarder le mariage des enfants en Inde, au Malawi, au Mali, au Niger et au Pakistan en évaluant le programme d’intervention de l’Alliance MTBA et en examinant les facteurs spécifiques du mariage des enfants dans chaque contexte. Dans ce rapport, nous visons à évaluer les succès du programme …


Um Só Currículo: Actividades Para Uma Educação Integrada Em Sexualidade, Género, Hiv E Direitos Humanos, International Sexuality And Hiv Curriculum Working Group, Nicole Haberland, Deborah Rogow Jan 2019

Um Só Currículo: Actividades Para Uma Educação Integrada Em Sexualidade, Género, Hiv E Direitos Humanos, International Sexuality And Hiv Curriculum Working Group, Nicole Haberland, Deborah Rogow

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Education on sexuality and HIV can help adolescents develop the capacity for healthy, respectful relationships and protect themselves from unwanted and unsafe sex, unintended pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infections. A 2015 Population Council study found that sexuality and HIV education programs that address gender and power in intimate relationships are five times more likely to be effective than programs that do not. However, most curricula still do not address these issues. It’s All One Curriculum provides a rationale, content, and sample activities for placing gender and rights at the center of sexuality and HIV curricula—both as stand-alone modules and integrated …


More Than A Backdrop: Understanding The Role Of Communities In Programming For Adolescent Girls—Action Guide, Sarah Blake, Miriam Temin Jan 2019

More Than A Backdrop: Understanding The Role Of Communities In Programming For Adolescent Girls—Action Guide, Sarah Blake, Miriam Temin

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

The structural and social features of a girl’s community play a critical role in determining what effects programs for adolescent girls can achieve. Girls’ communities include both the physical spaces girls must navigate and adults and peers who shape their beliefs about marriage, work, and education. This action guide focuses on key questions to ask when designing programs: How many girls live in a given community? Is the community urban, peri-urban, or rural? Is it formal or informal? How stable or cohesive is a community? Who is considered a “community member”? What resources exist for girls in the community, and …


Delivering Results In Girls' Education: How To Evaluate What Works, What Doesn't, And What We Don't Know, Stephanie Psaki Jan 2019

Delivering Results In Girls' Education: How To Evaluate What Works, What Doesn't, And What We Don't Know, Stephanie Psaki

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Girls around the world face daunting challenges when it comes to enrolling in primary school, completing secondary school, and gaining the basic knowledge and skills they need to be empowered, healthy, and productive adults. Many governments and organizations have risen to meet that challenge through policies and programs designed to remove common barriers to girls’ education. But as the number of actors in this space grows, and resources to address these challenges remain scarce, it is essential to ensure that investments are targeted toward the most effective policies and programs. This brief lays out the basics of program evaluation. The …


Women’S Divorce Rights In Jordan: Legal Rights And Cultural Challenges, Helen David Oct 2018

Women’S Divorce Rights In Jordan: Legal Rights And Cultural Challenges, Helen David

Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection

This research aims to examine women’s divorce rights in Jordan examining the topic both through their legal rights as well as through the cultural challenges and stigma that divorced women face. The research is focused specifically on the rights of Muslim women, who have to file for divorce through the Shari’a court system, in Jordan that are Jordanian nationals. The literature used in the research provides background insight into Jordan’s tribal system, family law in Jordan, and psychological theories that relate to group therapy and self-efficacy in divorced women. The researcher hypothesizes that despite the many socio-economic and legal reasons …


La Implementación De La Ley De Educación Sexual Integral (Ley 26.150): Una Comparación Entre Escuelas Secundarias Públicas Y Escuelas Secundarias Privadas Católicas En Caba / The Implementacion Of The Law Of Comprehensive Sexual Education (Law 26.150): A Comparison Between Public And Private Catholic High Schools In Caba, Eve Gertzman Oct 2018

La Implementación De La Ley De Educación Sexual Integral (Ley 26.150): Una Comparación Entre Escuelas Secundarias Públicas Y Escuelas Secundarias Privadas Católicas En Caba / The Implementacion Of The Law Of Comprehensive Sexual Education (Law 26.150): A Comparison Between Public And Private Catholic High Schools In Caba, Eve Gertzman

Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection

La promulgación de la ley 26.150, también conocida como la Ley de Educación Sexual Integral (ESI) en 2006, dio a todos los docentes de Argentina no sólo la oportunidad, sino también la responsabilidad de enseñar educación sexual sexual de una manera integral en sus aulas. Aunque han transcurrido más de doce años desde su aprobación, la ley no se ha implementado adecuadamente en las distintas regiones del país, incluyendo a la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Recopilando las opiniones y experiencias de tres docentes de escuelas secundarias públicas y privadas católicas en Buenos Aires, este estudio …


Women's Education, Intergenerational Coresidence, And Household Decision-Making In China, Cheng Cheng Aug 2018

Women's Education, Intergenerational Coresidence, And Household Decision-Making In China, Cheng Cheng

Research Collection School of Social Sciences

ObjectiveThis study examines how intergenerational coresidence modifies the association between women's education and their household decision‐making power in China.BackgroundPast research on how married women's education increases their decision‐making power at home has focused primarily on nuclear families. This article extends prior research by examining how this association varies by household structure. It compares women living with their husbands with those living with both their husbands and parents‐in‐law.MethodThis article used data from the China Family Panel Studies in 2010 and 2014. It employed marginal structural models to address the concern that certain characteristics selecting women of less power into coresidence with …


Black, Queer, And Beaten: On The Trauma Of Graduate School, Eric Anthony Grollman Jan 2018

Black, Queer, And Beaten: On The Trauma Of Graduate School, Eric Anthony Grollman

Sociology and Anthropology Faculty Publications

Two years after I graduated with a PhD in sociology from Indiana University, I started seeing a therapist again. At my in-take visit, my therapist invited me to return within a week. “Right now, you’re full,” he said, commenting on the numerous issues that I brought up in explaining why I was seeing a therapist. He did not mean “full of shit,” as in offering lies or irrelevant information; rather, he meant that I was “filled to the brim” of issues weighing on my heart, mind, and spirit. This was not news to me, but hearing him say “full” emphasized …


Adolescent Girls Empowerment Programme: Endline Technical Report, Karen Austrian, Erica Soler-Hampejsek, Paul C. Hewett, Natalie Jackson Hachonda, Jere R. Behrman Jan 2018

Adolescent Girls Empowerment Programme: Endline Technical Report, Karen Austrian, Erica Soler-Hampejsek, Paul C. Hewett, Natalie Jackson Hachonda, Jere R. Behrman

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

The theory of change behind the Adolescent Girls Empowerment Program (AGEP) posited that adolescent girls are empowered by building social, health, and economic assets that they can then draw on to reduce vulnerabilities and expand opportunities. In the long term, they will then increase their likelihood of completing school, delaying sexual debut, and reducing risks of early marriages, unintended pregnancies, acquisition of HIV, and other possibly detrimental outcomes. This endline report indicates that, while there were some changes for the program participants in the medium and long term, they did not translate into longer-term effects on reproductive and demographic outcomes …


Girlsread! Girls’ Rights: An Empowerment Curriculum, Natalie Jackson Hachonda, Nicole Haberland, Barbara Mensch, Pamela Nyirenda, Diana Bulanda-Shalala Jan 2018

Girlsread! Girls’ Rights: An Empowerment Curriculum, Natalie Jackson Hachonda, Nicole Haberland, Barbara Mensch, Pamela Nyirenda, Diana Bulanda-Shalala

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

This curriculum guide is designed to help female mentors in the GirlsRead! program in Zambia to directly engage girls in critical thinking about gender inequalities and discrimination, and help them build the assets and confidence needed to act on their own behalf and as progressive voices in their communities. GirlsRead! participants are girls in grade 7—the last year of primary school—when they are at high risk of leaving school. The curriculum includes 19 sessions that cover a range of topics from gender equality to sexuality to rights, in meetings that provide a space and opportunity for girls to regularly interact …


Forced Child Unions: From Legal Reform To Social Disruption—Formative Research In Five Communities In Chisec, Alta Verapaz, Paola Broll, Cecilia Garcés Jan 2018

Forced Child Unions: From Legal Reform To Social Disruption—Formative Research In Five Communities In Chisec, Alta Verapaz, Paola Broll, Cecilia Garcés

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Evidence has shown that child early and forced marriage/unions (CEFM/U) are harmful to the rights and development of girls and adolescents. It has also shown that increasing the minimum marriage age is not enough to eradicate this phenomenon because of the underlying practices of social institutions at the community level. This report details an investigation undertaken when a modification to the Civil Code was approved, then modified, in order to increase the minimum age of marriage in Guatemala. The investigation aimed to identify the norms, practices, and attitudes prevailing in the school, family, religion, government, and economy with regard to …


Insights And Evidence Gaps In Girl-Centered Programming: A Systematic Review, Nicole Haberland, Katharine Mccarthy, Martha Brady Jan 2018

Insights And Evidence Gaps In Girl-Centered Programming: A Systematic Review, Nicole Haberland, Katharine Mccarthy, Martha Brady

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Increased attention to the needs of adolescent girls has led to a growing number of programs in low- and middle-income countries. Questions remain, however, about what aspects of program design are most effective. This hinders efforts to effectively allocate resources, scale up programs, and replicate results across settings. This review looks at how the number of program components, involvement of supporting actors who influence the lives of girls, supplemental “booster” activities, intervention exposure level, and community saturation level influenced outcomes for girls. While findings suggest the importance of multicomponent programs and longer program exposure, each area requires further rigorous research …


What Works To Improve Outcomes For Kenya's Adolescent Girls?, Population Council Jan 2018

What Works To Improve Outcomes For Kenya's Adolescent Girls?, Population Council

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

This fact sheet outlines results from the Adolescent Girls Initiative–Kenya, a study that evaluates the long-term impact of a multi-sectoral intervention targeted at adolescent girls aged 11 to 15 years from Kibera and rural Wajir. The intervention consists of four different components: a community-based violence-prevention program, an education conditional cash transfer (CCT), health-focused girls' empowerment clubs, and wealth creation for girls via financial education and savings. Results indicate that the approach was a cost-effective way to create positive change across a range of well-being factors for young adolescent girls, including education, health, and economic outcomes.


Challenges And Opportunities Facing Successful Women In Mocrocco, Maia Hallward, Cortney Stewart Jan 2018

Challenges And Opportunities Facing Successful Women In Mocrocco, Maia Hallward, Cortney Stewart

Faculty and Research Publications

Over a decade since the passage of a revised family status code (mudawana)in Morocco, the literature varies in its assessment of the code's impact on women's rights and opportunities. While some studies point to the formal support for gender equality reflected in the revised code, others note that Moroccan women continue to face challenges in the social and symbolic spheres. Drawing on interviews conducted by the authors with women leaders in Morocco in 2016, this paper investigates the opportunities and obstacles these women have encountered in their personal journeys. The paper explores the extent to which elite background, …


Delivering Impact For Adolescent Girls: Emerging Findings From Population Council Research, Population Council Jan 2018

Delivering Impact For Adolescent Girls: Emerging Findings From Population Council Research, Population Council

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Despite numerous global commitments to invest in improving the lives of adolescent girls, questions remain as to what package of interventions can deliver the best outcomes. This report synthesizes findings from nine recent Population Council impact evaluations, conducted around the world, which indicate that empowerment and asset-building interventions for adolescent girls can improve education, health, economic, social capital, gender-equitable attitude, and violence outcomes for girls. The report includes implications for programs and investment, and identifies open questions for further research and evaluation.


Girlsread! E-Reader Curriculum, Natalie Jackson Hachonda, Nicole Haberland, Abdul-Kahad Alhassan, Beatrice Ani-Asamoah, Pamela Nyirenda, Barbara Mensch Jan 2018

Girlsread! E-Reader Curriculum, Natalie Jackson Hachonda, Nicole Haberland, Abdul-Kahad Alhassan, Beatrice Ani-Asamoah, Pamela Nyirenda, Barbara Mensch

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Zambian adolescent girls are at risk for premature school leaving and HIV infection due to a host of contextual factors including child marriage, early childbearing, harmful gender norms, and intimate partner violence. This report describes the GirlsRead! program, whose overall goal is to enhance learning and increase progression to secondary school among Zambian adolescent girls in grade 7, the last year of primary school. Through GirlsRead!, the Population Council, together with FAWEZA and Worldreader are aiming to improve school retention by bolstering girls’ learning outcomes, furthering social connections, improving critical thinking skills, increasing agency, and fostering community norms supportive of …


Pedaling Toward The Future: Increasing And Maintaining The School Attendance Of Adolescent Girls In Indigenous Communities Of Rural Guatemala, Paola Broll Jan 2018

Pedaling Toward The Future: Increasing And Maintaining The School Attendance Of Adolescent Girls In Indigenous Communities Of Rural Guatemala, Paola Broll

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Population Council Guatemala, with the support of UNFPA and other donors, developed a strategy of expansion and scale up of Abriendo Oportunidades (AO) through geographic conglomerates with an ecological approach. They provided 250 bicycles as an additional component of AO to assess its effectiveness in increasing mobility and school attendance in four municipalities in Guatemala. This brief describes how the project was successful in increasing mobility, reinsertion, and completion of the 2017 school year among its participants. Results show that the provision of bicycles to adolescents participating in the Abriendo Oportunidades program increased school reintegration from the 2016 cycle to …


Skill Retention After School-Leaving: Analysis Of Data From The Malawi Schooling And Adolescent Study, Erica Soler-Hampejsek, Barbara Mensch, Stephanie Psaki, Monica J. Grant, Christine A. Kelly, Paul C. Hewett Jan 2018

Skill Retention After School-Leaving: Analysis Of Data From The Malawi Schooling And Adolescent Study, Erica Soler-Hampejsek, Barbara Mensch, Stephanie Psaki, Monica J. Grant, Christine A. Kelly, Paul C. Hewett

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

The skills young people develop in school provide an essential foundation that can either be reinforced or deteriorate depending on the strength of the foundation and opportunities after leaving school. This brief describes findings from an analysis of a longitudinal data set of Malawian adolescents aged 14–17 attending school when first interviewed in 2007. The study investigated whether literacy and numeracy skills at school-leaving—among those who dropped out before completing secondary school—were retained several years after. Results show a significant gender difference in skill level after school-leaving for English skills, even after controlling for initial skill level and grade attainment, …