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- rats. (4)
- Simple schedules (3)
- pigeons. (2)
- Action monitoring (2)
- Bar press (2)
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- Bar pressing (2)
- Behavioral competition (2)
- Behavioral contrast (2)
- Error-related negativity (2)
- Event-Related Brain Potentials (ERPs) (2)
- Key peck (2)
- Matching theory (2)
- Multiple schedules (2)
- P3b (2)
- Satiation (2)
- Variable-interval response function (2)
- Within-session effects (2)
- PIGEONS. (1)
- bias. (1)
- rat. (1)
- Apomorphine (1)
- Autoshaping (1)
- Behavioral cost (1)
- Behavioral economics (1)
- Block clock (1)
- Cognitive contral (1)
- Cognitive control (1)
- Conflict monitoring (1)
- Darkened key (1)
- Dopamine D1-like and D2-like receptors (1)
Articles 1 - 30 of 30
Full-Text Articles in Psychology
The Effects Of Social Exclusion On The Ern And The Cognitive Control Of Action Monitoring, Jason Themanson, Aaron Ball, Stephanie Khatcherian, Peter Rosen
The Effects Of Social Exclusion On The Ern And The Cognitive Control Of Action Monitoring, Jason Themanson, Aaron Ball, Stephanie Khatcherian, Peter Rosen
Scholarship
The current study investigated the influence of social exclusion, created through the Cyberball paradigm, on cognitive control using neural and behavioral measures of action monitoring. Healthy young adults performed a modified flanker task while their post-error behavior (accuracy, RT) and error-related negativity (ERN) were assessed. Results indicated that excluded participants showed decreased ERN and post-error response accuracy compared to included participants following their social interactions. These findings suggest that a common neural framework may exist for cognitive control processes and that cognitive control allocated toward exclusion-related processing following exclusionary social interactions may disrupt the capability to support self-regulatory action monitoring.
Examining The Relationships Between Self-Efficacy, Task-Relevant Attentional Control, And Task Performance: Evidence From Event-Related Brain Potentials, Jason Themanson, Peter Peter J. Rosen
Examining The Relationships Between Self-Efficacy, Task-Relevant Attentional Control, And Task Performance: Evidence From Event-Related Brain Potentials, Jason Themanson, Peter Peter J. Rosen
Scholarship
Self-efficacy (SE) is a modifiable psychosocial factor related to individuals’ beliefs in their capabilities to successfully complete courses of action and has been shown to be positively associated with task performance. The authors hypothesized that one means through which SE is related with improved performance is through enhanced task-relevant attentional control during task execution. To assess this hypothesis, we examined the relationships between SE and behavioral and neural indices of task performance and task-relevant attentional control for 76 young adults during the completion of a flanker task. Results showed that greater SE was associated with greater response accuracy and P3b …
The Ongoing Cognitive Processing Of Exclusionary Social Events: Evidence From Event-Related Potentials, Jason Themanson
The Ongoing Cognitive Processing Of Exclusionary Social Events: Evidence From Event-Related Potentials, Jason Themanson
Scholarship
Exclusionary social events are known to cause alterations in neural activity and attention-related processes. However, the precise nature of these neural adjustments remains unknown as previous research has been limited to examining social interactions and exclusionary events as unitary phenomena. To address this limitation, we assessed neural activity during both inclusionary and exclusionary social interactions by examining event-related brain potentials at multiple points within each social event. Our results show an initial enhancement of anterior cingulate cortex-related activation, indexed by the anterior N2, in response to specific exclusionary events followed by an enhanced attentional orienting response, indexed by the P3a, …
An Event-Related Examination Of Neural Activity During Social Interactions, Jason Themanson, Stephanie Khatcherian, Aaron Ball, Peter Rosen
An Event-Related Examination Of Neural Activity During Social Interactions, Jason Themanson, Stephanie Khatcherian, Aaron Ball, Peter Rosen
Scholarship
Social exclusion is known to cause alterations in neural activity and perceptions of social distress. However, previous research is largely limited to examining social interactions as a unitary phenomenon without investigating adjustments in neural and attentional processes that occur during social interactions. To address this limitation, we examined neural activity on a trial-by-trial basis during different social interactions. Our results show conflict monitoring neural alarm activation, indexed by the N2, in response to specific exclusionary events; even during interactions that are inclusionary overall and in the absence of self-reported feelings of social pain. Furthermore, we show enhanced attentional activation to …
Living (And Dying) In The Moment: An Examination Of Ongoing Neural Activity During Social Exclusion, Jason Themanson, Stephanie Khatcherian,, Aaron Ball
Living (And Dying) In The Moment: An Examination Of Ongoing Neural Activity During Social Exclusion, Jason Themanson, Stephanie Khatcherian,, Aaron Ball
Scholarship
Social exclusion is known to cause alterations in neural alarm activity as well as perceptions of social distress. However, previous research is largely limited to examining neural activation aggregated within blocks of social interactions, which does not allow for the examination of adjustments in neural alarm processes, or additional task-relevant attentional processes, during social interactions. To address these limitations, we examined neural alarm activity and other attention-related neural processes on a trial-by-trial basis during different social interactions that were characterized as largely inclusive or exclusive. Our results show neural alarm activation, evidenced by the N2 component, in response to all …
The Ongoing Cognitive Processing Of Exclusionary Social Events: Evidence From Event-Related Potentials, Jason Themanson, Aaron Ball, Stephanie Khatcherian, Jennifer Schreiber, Amanda Larsen, Kaitlin Dunn, Peter Rosen
The Ongoing Cognitive Processing Of Exclusionary Social Events: Evidence From Event-Related Potentials, Jason Themanson, Aaron Ball, Stephanie Khatcherian, Jennifer Schreiber, Amanda Larsen, Kaitlin Dunn, Peter Rosen
Scholarship
Social Exclusion and ERPs Social exclusion is theorized to influence cognition by reallocating attention toward exclusion and away from other processes. Accordingly, this additional processing of exclusionary events should be exhibited in neural indices of attention allocation. Previous research has shown N2 differences at the moment that an individual can identify being included or excluded within an ongoing social interaction regardless of the larger nature of the social exchange. Further, research has shown that exclusion draws attention away from other cognitive control processes, suggesting that additional processing of exclusionary events should be evidenced in ongoing interactions. Current Study To examine …
Examining The Effects Of Social Exclusion On Neural And Behavioral Indices Of Self-Regulatory Action Monitoring, Jason Themanson, Aaron Ball, Stephanie Khatcherian, Peter Rosen
Examining The Effects Of Social Exclusion On Neural And Behavioral Indices Of Self-Regulatory Action Monitoring, Jason Themanson, Aaron Ball, Stephanie Khatcherian, Peter Rosen
Scholarship
Being the target of social exclusion produces a number of negative consequences, including deficits in cognitive functioning related to self-regulation and general cognition. While such effects have been acknowledged, there is a lack of literature examining the influence of social exclusion on both neural and behavioral indices of self-regulatory action monitoring processes during task performance. Accordingly, the current study utilized event-related brain potentials (ERPs) to investigate the influence of social exclusion, created through the use of the Cyberball paradigm, on neural and behavioral indices of self-regulatory action monitoring processes implemented during the execution of a modified flanker task. Specifically, the …
Influences Of Different Degrees Of Social Exclusion On Neural Activity, Jason Themanson, Amanda Larsen, Jennifer Schreiber, Kaitlin Dunn
Influences Of Different Degrees Of Social Exclusion On Neural Activity, Jason Themanson, Amanda Larsen, Jennifer Schreiber, Kaitlin Dunn
Scholarship
Social Exclusion Although recent research has made strides in understanding the behavioral impact of varying degrees of social exclusion on targets of exclusion, little is known about the ongoing neural dynamics present during the exclusion process. Importantly, previous research has shown differences in neural activity during exclusionary and inclusionary interactions as well as to exclusionary and inclusionary social events. However, no examinations have investigated whether these differences are sensitive to different degrees of social inclusion or exclusion. Current Study To examine the potential impact of varying degrees of social exclusion on neural activity related to being the target of exclusion, …
Investigating Differences Due To The Timing Of Social Exclusion, Jason Themanson, Jennifer Schreiber, Amanda Larsen, Kaitlin Dunn
Investigating Differences Due To The Timing Of Social Exclusion, Jason Themanson, Jennifer Schreiber, Amanda Larsen, Kaitlin Dunn
Scholarship
Social Exclusion When examining social exclusion, researchers typically focus on the end of the interaction. However, recent research examining patterns of neural activation during social interactions indicates that specific events throughout an interaction are related to perceptions of exclusion (Themanson et al., 2013). This leaves open the possibility that exclusion-related consequences may be present even if someone was fully included at the end of a social interaction. To address this issue, we varied the timing of similar durations of exclusion within social interactions to see the effects on exclusion-related neural activity and self-reported feeling states. Current Study To examine the …
Alterations In Error-Related Brain Activity And Post-Error Behavior Over Time, Jason Themanson, Matthew Pontifex, Charles Hillman, Peter Rosen, Edward Mcauley
Alterations In Error-Related Brain Activity And Post-Error Behavior Over Time, Jason Themanson, Matthew Pontifex, Charles Hillman, Peter Rosen, Edward Mcauley
Scholarship
This study examines the relation between the error-related negativity (ERN) and post-error behavior over time in healthy young adults (N = 61). Event-related brain potentials were collected during two sessions of an identical flanker task. Results indicated changes in ERN and post-error accuracy were related across task sessions, with more negative ERN associated with greater improvements in post-error Accuracy. This relationship was independent of any cross-sectional relationships between overall task performance, individual difference factors, including personality and self-efficacy, and indices of self-regulatory action monitoring. These results indicate that the relation between ERN and post-error accuracy remains intact and consistent regardless …
Aerobic Fitness And Cognitive Development: Event-Related Brain Potential And Task Performance Indices Of Executive Control In Preadolescent Children, Jason Themanson, Charles Hillman, Sarah Buck, Matthew Pontifex, Darla Castelli
Aerobic Fitness And Cognitive Development: Event-Related Brain Potential And Task Performance Indices Of Executive Control In Preadolescent Children, Jason Themanson, Charles Hillman, Sarah Buck, Matthew Pontifex, Darla Castelli
Scholarship
The relationship between aerobic fitness and executive control was assessed in 38 higher- and lower-fit children (Mage = 9.4 years), grouped according to their performance on a field test of aerobic capacity. Participants performed a flanker task requiring variable amounts of executive control while event-related brain potential responses and task performance were assessed. Results indicated that higher-fit children performed more accurately across conditions of the flanker task and following commission errors when compared to lower-fit children, whereas no group differences were observed for reaction time. Neuroelectric data indicated that P3 amplitude was larger for higher- compared to lower-fit children across …
The Influence Of Hope On The Relationship Between Racial Discrimination And Depressive Symptoms, Kira Hudson Banks, Jennifer L. Singleton, Laura P. Kohn-Wood
The Influence Of Hope On The Relationship Between Racial Discrimination And Depressive Symptoms, Kira Hudson Banks, Jennifer L. Singleton, Laura P. Kohn-Wood
Scholarship
This study investigated how hope influences the relationship between discrimination and depressive symptoms. Results from participants’ (N=318) responses suggest that increased levels of hope were directly related to decreased levels of depressive symptoms. However, increased levels of hope were also related to a stronger relationship between discrimination and depressive symptoms.
The Color And Texture Of Hope: Some Preliminary Findings And Implications For Hope Theory And Counseling Among Diverse Racial/Ethnic Groups, Edward C. Chang, Kira Hudson Banks
The Color And Texture Of Hope: Some Preliminary Findings And Implications For Hope Theory And Counseling Among Diverse Racial/Ethnic Groups, Edward C. Chang, Kira Hudson Banks
Scholarship
For decades, researchers have been interested in identifying individual-differences variables that are linked to adjustment. One variable, which is believed not only to represent an important individual-differences predictor of a range of adaptive outcomes but also to have important implications for counseling students, is hope (Synder, 1995).
The Influence Of Racial Identity Profiles On The Relationship Between Racial Discrimination And Depressive Symptoms, Kira Hudson Banks, Laura P. Kohn-Wood
The Influence Of Racial Identity Profiles On The Relationship Between Racial Discrimination And Depressive Symptoms, Kira Hudson Banks, Laura P. Kohn-Wood
Scholarship
This study examined the association between racial identity profiles, discrimination, and mental health outcomes. African American college students (N = 194) completed measures of racial discrimination, racial identity, college hassles, and depressive symptoms. Four meaningful profiles emerged through a cluster analysis of seven dimensions of racial identity assessed using the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (MIBI). Results suggested racial identity moderates the relation between discrimination and depressive symptoms. Students whose racial identity profile involves the goal of blending with the mainstream and focusing on shared human qualities rather than race as a core ideological concept had a significantly stronger association …
Masculinity Ideology And Forgiveness Of Racial Discrimination Among African American Men: Direct And Interactive Relationships, Wizdom Powell Hammond, Kira Hudson Banks, Jacqueline S. Mattis
Masculinity Ideology And Forgiveness Of Racial Discrimination Among African American Men: Direct And Interactive Relationships, Wizdom Powell Hammond, Kira Hudson Banks, Jacqueline S. Mattis
Scholarship
Forgiveness research has focused almost exclusively on interpersonal transgressions committed in close relationships. Consequently, less is known about factors informing forgiveness of non-intimate actors. The current study addresses these gaps by investigating correlates of forgiveness over racial discrimination among African American men (N=171). Specifically, we explore relationships between the endorsement of traditional masculine ideology (e.g., restrictive emotionality), overall forgiveness, forgiveness with positive affect, and forgiveness with the absence of negative affect. Links between personality, religiosity, social support, discrimination experiences, and these forms of forgiveness also are examined. Restrictive emotionality emerged as a barrier to forgiveness of discrimination. However, the relationship …
An Examination Of The African American Experience Of Everyday Discrimination And Symptoms Of Psychological Distress, Kira Hudson Banks, Laura P. Kohn-Wood, Michael Spencer
An Examination Of The African American Experience Of Everyday Discrimination And Symptoms Of Psychological Distress, Kira Hudson Banks, Laura P. Kohn-Wood, Michael Spencer
Scholarship
Current theoretical models suggest that the most potent and impacting discrimination experienced by African Americans in the post Jim Crow era are subtle and unconscious forms of discrimination that are experienced on a daily basis. This study investigates the relationship between perceived everyday discrimination and anxiety and depressive symptoms. Further, we examine gender as a moderator of this relationship. Data come from the 1995 Detroit Area Study data with 570 African American respondents. Results indicate that perceived discrimination is directly related to both symptoms of depression and anxiety. Gender moderates the relationship between discrimination and anxiety symptoms, but not discrimination …
The Role Of Dopamine In Reinforcement: Changes In Reinforcement Sensitivity Induced By D1-Type, D2-Type, And Nonselective Dopamine Receptor Agonists, Natalie Bratcher, Valeri Farmer-Dougan, James Dougan, Byron Heidenreich, Paul Garris
The Role Of Dopamine In Reinforcement: Changes In Reinforcement Sensitivity Induced By D1-Type, D2-Type, And Nonselective Dopamine Receptor Agonists, Natalie Bratcher, Valeri Farmer-Dougan, James Dougan, Byron Heidenreich, Paul Garris
Scholarship
Dose-dependent changes in sensitivity to reinforcement were found when rats were treated with low, moderate, and high doses of the partial dopamine D1-type receptor agonist SKF38393 and with the nonselective dopamine agonist apomorphine, but did not change when rats were treated with similar doses of the selective dopamine D2-type receptor agonist quinpirole. Estimates of bias did not differ significantly across exposure to SKF38393 or quinpirole, but did change significantly at the high dose of apomorphine. Estimates of goodness of fit (r2) did not change significantly during quinpirole exposure. Poor goodness of fit was obtained for the high doses of SKF38393 …
How Adaptive And Maladaptive Perfectionism Relate To Positive And Negative Psychological Functioning: Testing A Stress-Mediation Model In Black And White Female College Students, Edward C. Chang, Kira Hudson Banks, Angela F. Watkins
How Adaptive And Maladaptive Perfectionism Relate To Positive And Negative Psychological Functioning: Testing A Stress-Mediation Model In Black And White Female College Students, Edward C. Chang, Kira Hudson Banks, Angela F. Watkins
Scholarship
This study assessed racial variations in how adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism relate to psychological functioning in a sample of 150 Black and 150 White female college students. Comparative results indicated that Black women, as compared with White women, reported less adaptive perfectionism, less life satisfaction, greater stress, and greater negative affect. Correlational results indicated that for both groups, maladaptive perfectionism, but not adaptive perfectionism, was associated with stress. Accordingly, a model in which stress mediates the link between maladaptive perfectionism and psychological functioning was tested. Overall, path-analytic results indicated that stress completely or partially mediated the link between maladaptive perfectionism …
Gender, Ethnicity And Depression: Intersectionality In Mental Health Research With African American Women, Kira Hudson Banks, Laura P. Kohn-Wood
Gender, Ethnicity And Depression: Intersectionality In Mental Health Research With African American Women, Kira Hudson Banks, Laura P. Kohn-Wood
Scholarship
This review synthesizes the current knowledge regarding African American women and depression. After highlighting major findings related to the epidemiology, etiology, symptomatology and treatment, we will discuss the gaps in our understanding of these factors specific to African American women. We will argue that filling in these gaps will require a theoretical framework that takes into account the intersection of race and gender. We will present an empirically defined heuristic for studying mental illness among African American women, in terms of both experiences and outcomes.
The Man Who Listens To Behavior: Folk Wisdom And Behavior Analysis From A Real Horse Whisperer, James Dougan, Valeri Farmer-Dougan
The Man Who Listens To Behavior: Folk Wisdom And Behavior Analysis From A Real Horse Whisperer, James Dougan, Valeri Farmer-Dougan
Scholarship
The popular novel and movie The Horse Whisperer are based on the work of several real-life horse whisperers, the most famous of whom is Monty Roberts. Over the last 50 years, Roberts has developed a technique for training horses that is both more effective and less aversive than traditional training techniques. An analysis of Roberts’ methods (as described in his book, The Man Who Listens to Horses) indicates a deep understanding of behavioral principles including positive reinforcement, timeout, species-specific defense reactions, ‘‘learned helplessness,’’ and the behavioral analysis of language. Roberts developed his theory and techniques on the basis of personal …
Within-Session Changes In The Vi Response Function: Separating Food Density From Elapsed Session Time, James Dougan, Laura Campbell
Within-Session Changes In The Vi Response Function: Separating Food Density From Elapsed Session Time, James Dougan, Laura Campbell
Scholarship
Previous studies examining the relationship between response rate and reinforcement rate on variable- interval schedules (the variable-interval response function) have confounded elapsed session time with within-session changes in food density. The present experiments attempted to manipulate these factors independently and thus isolate their effects on responding. In Experiment 1, 7 rats pressed a bar for food on a series of four variable-interval schedules (7.5 s, 15 s, 30 s, and 480 s). Elapsed session time was held constant while food density was manipulated via a presession feeding. Changes in food density altered the form of the variable-interval response function, independently …
Gallistel’S The Organization Of Learning: This Is Not Creation Science, James Dougan
Gallistel’S The Organization Of Learning: This Is Not Creation Science, James Dougan
Scholarship
No abstract provided.
Session Duration And The Vi Response Function: With-In Session Prospective And Retrospective Efffects, James Dougan, Alfred Kuh, K. Vink
Session Duration And The Vi Response Function: With-In Session Prospective And Retrospective Efffects, James Dougan, Alfred Kuh, K. Vink
Scholarship
Two experiments examined the effects of session duration on responding during simple variable-interval schedules. In Experiment 1, rats were exposed to a series of simple variable-interval schedules differing in both session duration (10 min or 30 min) and scheduled reinforcement rate (7.5 s,15 s, 30 s, and 480 s). The functions relating response rate to reinforcement rate were predominantly monotonic for the short (10-min) sessions but were predominantly bitonic for the long (30-min) sessions, when data from the entire session were considered. Examination of responding within sessions suggested that differences in the whole-session data were produced by a combination of …
The Autoshaping Procedure As A Residual Block Clock, James Dougan, James Dinsmoor, John Pfister, Edda Thiels
The Autoshaping Procedure As A Residual Block Clock, James Dougan, James Dinsmoor, John Pfister, Edda Thiels
Scholarship
In the first experiment, 4 pigeons were each presented with a recurring sequence of four key colors followed by the delivery of grain (block clock). Once the rate of pecking had stabilized, three of the colors were replaced, during different series of sessions, by a darkening of the key. The rate of pecking was reduced within those segments of the interval between deliveries of food during which the key was dark; when the key was dark during the final portion of the interval, rates were reduced throughout the entire interval. In the second experiment, 3 new pigeons were exposed to …
Inelastic Supply: An Economic Approach To Simple Interval Schedule, James Dougan
Inelastic Supply: An Economic Approach To Simple Interval Schedule, James Dougan
Scholarship
Economic theory predicts an inverse relationship between the quantity of a commodity supplied to the marketplace and the equilibrium market price of that commodity. This prediction was tested in three experiments. Pigeons responded on simple variable-interval schedules, and quantity of reinforcement supplied was varied in a different way in each experiment. In Experiment 1, quantity supplied was varied by manipulating reinforcement rate while keeping session length constant. In Experiment 2, quantity supplied was varied by manipulating reinforcement rate while keeping reinforcers per session constant. In Experiment 3, quantity supplied was varied by manipulating reinforcer magnitude while keeping number of reinforcers …
Simple Schedule And Signal-Key Multiple Schedule Responding And Behavioral Contrast, James Dougan, Frances Mcsweeney, Valerie Farmer
Simple Schedule And Signal-Key Multiple Schedule Responding And Behavioral Contrast, James Dougan, Frances Mcsweeney, Valerie Farmer
Scholarship
Pigeons' rates of responding on simple schedules appearing alone or as components of signal-key multiple schedules were not systematically different early in training, but were different later in training. This suggests that a simple schedule may be an appropriate baseline from which to measure behavioral contrast. Positive behavioral contrast, like the present differences between simple and multiple schedule responding, does not appear when naive subjects respond on signal-key multiple schedules, but does appear when experimentally experienced subjects are used.
The Generalized Matching Law As A Description Of Multiple-Schedule Responding, James Dougan, Frances Mcsweeney, Valeri Farmer, J. Whipple
The Generalized Matching Law As A Description Of Multiple-Schedule Responding, James Dougan, Frances Mcsweeney, Valeri Farmer, J. Whipple
Scholarship
The literature was examined to determine how well the generalized matching law (Baum, 1974) describes multiple-schedule responding. In general, it describes the data well, accounting for a median of 91% of the variance. The median size of the undermatching parameter was 0.46; the median bias parameter was 1.00. The size of the undermatching parameter, and the proportion of the variance accounted for by the equation, varied inversely with the number of schedules conducted, with the number of sessions conducted per schedule, and with the time within a component. The undermatching parameter also varied with the operanda used to produce reinforcers …
Behavioral Contrast In Competitive And Non-Competitive Environments, James Dougan, Frances Mcsweeney, Valeri Farmer-Dougan
Behavioral Contrast In Competitive And Non-Competitive Environments, James Dougan, Frances Mcsweeney, Valeri Farmer-Dougan
Scholarship
Three experiments examined the effects of opportunities for an alternative response (drinking) on positive behavioral contrast of rats' food-reinforced bar pressing. In both Experiments I and 2 the baseline multiple variable-interval schedules were rich (variable interval 10-s), and contrast was examined both with and without a water bottle present. In Experiment 1, the rats were not water deprived. When one component of the multiple schedule was changed to extinction, the rate of bar pressing increased in the constant component (positive behavioral contrast). The magnitude of contrast was larger when the bottle was absent than when it was present, as predicted …
Some Parameters Of Behavioral Contrast And Allocation Of Interim Behavior In Rats, James Dougan, Frances Mcsweeney, Valeri Farmer
Some Parameters Of Behavioral Contrast And Allocation Of Interim Behavior In Rats, James Dougan, Frances Mcsweeney, Valeri Farmer
Scholarship
Two experiments examined the effects of baseline reinforcement rate and component duration on behavioral contrast and on re-allocation of interim behavior in rats. Positive behavioral contrast occurred during multiple variable-interval 10-second extinction (VI 10 EXT) after a multiple VI 10 VI 10 baseline condition, but not during multiple VI 60 EXT following multiple VI 60 VI 60 baseline. Component duration had no significant effect on contrast. These results differed from those found in studies of pigeons' key pecking. Contrast was accompanied by an increased rate of drinking in the changed component, but drinking in the constant component did not decrease. …
Variation In Herrnsein’S R0 As A Function Of Alternative Reinforcement Rate, James Dougan, Frances Mcsweeney
Variation In Herrnsein’S R0 As A Function Of Alternative Reinforcement Rate, James Dougan, Frances Mcsweeney
Scholarship
In a test of Herrnstein's (1970, 1974) equation for simple schedules, 15 pigeons pecked a key that produced food delivered according to variable-interval schedules. One group of birds was water deprived, and food-reinforced key pecking occurred in the presence of free water. Two other groups were not water deprived; water was present for one and absent for the other. As predicted by Herrnstein, the parameter ro was significantly higher in the water-deprived group than in the two nondeprived groups. Contrary to Herrnstein's interpretation of ro, the rate of drinking varied across schedules. Herrnstein's interpretation can be salvaged by considering ro …