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Full-Text Articles in Social and Behavioral Sciences

Using Free And Open Source Software To Teach University Gis Courses Online: Lessons Learned During A Pandemic, Sterling Quinn Aug 2021

Using Free And Open Source Software To Teach University Gis Courses Online: Lessons Learned During A Pandemic, Sterling Quinn

Geography Faculty Scholarship

During the remote learning necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic, university GIS students did not always have home access to the kinds of software and hardware that they would ordinarily get in their on-campus lab facilities. In this situation, the free and cross-platform nature of FOSS opened the door for some students to continue their GIS education uninterrupted. In this article, I describe how one university allowed students to choose FOSS such as QGIS, PostGIS, and GeoDa as alternatives to proprietary software in upper-division GIS coursework. These were used to teach techniques such as point pattern analysis, visibility analysis, hydrological modeling, …


Top 100 Cited Publications In Physics Education In The Last Thirty Years: A Bibliometric Analysis, Nadi Suprapto, Binar K. Prahani, Utama A. Deta Aug 2021

Top 100 Cited Publications In Physics Education In The Last Thirty Years: A Bibliometric Analysis, Nadi Suprapto, Binar K. Prahani, Utama A. Deta

Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal)

The present study's focus is to analyze the top 100 cited papers (classic papers) in the field of physics education in the last thirty years. The study is aimed to provide insight into the citation pattern, authorship pattern, year, journals, countries of these classic papers with the help of bibliometric analysis. The data for the study was extracted from the Scopus database. The study indicated that among these top 100 papers maximum were in the form of research articles. The majority of these top-cited papers were published during the five years from 2012 to 2016. The average citation per paper …


The Value Of Republishing Scientific Literature In Institutional Repositories, Sue Ann Gardner, Linnea Fredrickson, Paul Royster Jun 2021

The Value Of Republishing Scientific Literature In Institutional Repositories, Sue Ann Gardner, Linnea Fredrickson, Paul Royster

University of Nebraska-Lincoln Libraries: Conference Presentations and Speeches

Background: The University of Nebraska-Lincoln University Libraries institutional repository was founded in 2005 on the Digital Commons platform. It currently contains more than 118,000 full-text scholarly works that have been downloaded over 73,000,000 times.

Problem that drove the project: Older scientific literature may only occasionally circulate from university library collections or be purchased by readers from remaindered publishers' stock.

Methods: This research will employ statistical analyses to demonstrate the value of making available four series of scientific literature in the University of Nebraska-Lincoln University Libraries Digital Commons: Insecta Mundi, the Nebraska Bird Review, the Transactions of the Nebraska …


Research Trend On Ethnoscience Through Bibliometric Analysis (2011-2020) And The Contribution Of Indonesia, Nadi Suprapto, Binar Kurnia Prahani, Utama Alan Deta Jun 2021

Research Trend On Ethnoscience Through Bibliometric Analysis (2011-2020) And The Contribution Of Indonesia, Nadi Suprapto, Binar Kurnia Prahani, Utama Alan Deta

Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal)

This paper aims to analyze the scientific trend of research on ethnoscience through bibliometric study and to explore how the contribution of Indonesian researchers in the Scopus database from 2011 to 2020. The sample was composed of 536 documents in total. The results revealed that scientific publication on ethnoscience has been increasing. The USA contributed the most documents on ethnoscience as well as Indonesia’s institutions dominated in this area. Indeed, Indonesia put its two representative’s institutions: Universitas Negeri Semarang and Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, among the big ten institutions in the world. All Indonesian documents produced by teacher-producing universities and public …


Real-Life Conundrums In The Struggle For Institutional Transformation, Julia Mcquillan, Nestor Hernandez Jun 2021

Real-Life Conundrums In The Struggle For Institutional Transformation, Julia Mcquillan, Nestor Hernandez

Department of Sociology: Faculty Publications

Intersecting systems of inequality (i.e., gender and race/ethnicity) are remarkably resistant to change. Many universities, however, seek National Science Foundation Institutional Transformation awards to change processes, procedures, and cultures to make science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) departments more inclusive. In this article we describe a case study with observations for eight years of before (2000–2007), five during (2008–2013), and seven after (2014–2020) intensive efforts to increase women through reducing barriers and increasing access to women. Finally, we reflect on flawed assumptions built into the proposal, the slow and uneven change in the proportion of women over time, the strengths …


An Exploration Of Manipulatives In Math Education, Jade Monte May 2021

An Exploration Of Manipulatives In Math Education, Jade Monte

Honors Program Theses and Projects

Pre-existing literature has shown that the education system needs to re-evaluate mathematical teaching practices in a manner that can boost students’ confidence in mathematics. Thus, the research is to investigate the use of manipulatives in reducing students’ anxiety by increasing their learning experience and engagement in mathematics. Furthermore, the purpose of this thesis is to explain the interconnectedness of math manipulatives, student engagement, and problem-solving. An in-depth literature review is conducted, which contains definitions, important benefits and methodologies of manipulatives, as well as the teacher’s role regarding these three terms. When manipulatives, student engagement, and problem-solving are in harmony, students …


Analysis Of Students’ Multi-Representation Ability In Augmented Reality-Assisted Learning, Sri Jumini, Edy Cahyono, Muhamad Miftakhul Falah May 2021

Analysis Of Students’ Multi-Representation Ability In Augmented Reality-Assisted Learning, Sri Jumini, Edy Cahyono, Muhamad Miftakhul Falah

Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal)

Not all learning sources can directly and cheaply be presented, so augmented reality media is needed to be applied to students with various talents and intelligence. This study aims to analyze students’ multi-representation ability through the use of augmented reality media. The research method was carried out through pre-experiment with one group posttest only design. Test question items were given to see the students’ multi-representation ability. Data analysis was carried out through the percentage of the number of students achieving test scores of more than or equal to 80 on a scale of 100. The results showed that 88% (28 …


The End Or Beginning? Either Way, The Credits Are Not Rolling Yet!, Robert M. Capraro, Mary Margaret Capraro, Jacqueline Leonard, Chance Lewis, Melva R. Grant, Marlon James, Eduardo Mosqueda, Jamaal Young, Ali Bicer, Tarcia Hubert, Alesia Mickle Moldavan, Susan Ophelia Cannon, Hyunkyung Kwon, Michael S. Rugh, Jonas L. Chang May 2021

The End Or Beginning? Either Way, The Credits Are Not Rolling Yet!, Robert M. Capraro, Mary Margaret Capraro, Jacqueline Leonard, Chance Lewis, Melva R. Grant, Marlon James, Eduardo Mosqueda, Jamaal Young, Ali Bicer, Tarcia Hubert, Alesia Mickle Moldavan, Susan Ophelia Cannon, Hyunkyung Kwon, Michael S. Rugh, Jonas L. Chang

Teaching & Learning Faculty Publications

(First paragraph) Thank you to all our reviewers, editorial board members, authors, and those who chose the Journal of Urban Mathematics Education (JUME) as their outlet of choice this past year. JUME has had many recent successes, and we in the editorial team plan to release the salient performance data for the journal. For JUME to advance its mission, we believe that accountability and transparency are essential. To this end, our readers will from now on receive an annual progress report about JUME in our first issue of each year.


Exploring Factors In Choosing Stem Majors And Careers: Improving Science Education Through The Lens Of Self-Determination Theory, Lauren Mott Mar 2021

Exploring Factors In Choosing Stem Majors And Careers: Improving Science Education Through The Lens Of Self-Determination Theory, Lauren Mott

Honors Theses

Several barriers currently exist for students who could be successful in science/STEM careers but have not had the support they needed throughout their science/STEM education. This study of the literature applies Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to existing research to identify steps educators can take to remove these unnecessary barriers for their students. SDT defines competence, relatedness, and autonomy as three innate psychological needs that must be met for well-being. An exploratory review of the literature was conducted, and findings were organized using SDT. The results showed that competence, relatedness, and autonomy were all key factors in students’ self-determination of science/STEM careers. …


Problematizing Perceptions Of Stem Potential: Differences By Cognitive Disability Status In High School And Postsecondary Educational Outcomes, Dara Shifrer, Daniel Mackin Freeman Mar 2021

Problematizing Perceptions Of Stem Potential: Differences By Cognitive Disability Status In High School And Postsecondary Educational Outcomes, Dara Shifrer, Daniel Mackin Freeman

Sociology Faculty Publications and Presentations

The STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) potential of youth with cognitive disabilities is often dismissed through problematic perceptions of STEM ability as natural and of youth with cognitive disabilities as unable. National data on more than 15,000 adolescents from the High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 first suggest that, among youth with disabilities, youth with medicated attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have the highest levels of STEM achievement, and youth with learning or intellectual disabilities typically have the lowest. Undergraduates with medicated ADHD or autism appear to be more likely to major in STEM than youth without cognitive disabilities, and youth …


Unsupervised Data Mining Technique For Clustering Library In Indonesia, Robbi Rahim, Joseph Teguh Santoso, Sri Jumini, Gita Widi Bhawika, Daniel Susilo, Danny Wibowo Feb 2021

Unsupervised Data Mining Technique For Clustering Library In Indonesia, Robbi Rahim, Joseph Teguh Santoso, Sri Jumini, Gita Widi Bhawika, Daniel Susilo, Danny Wibowo

Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal)

Organizing school libraries not only keeps library materials, but helps students and teachers in completing tasks in the teaching process so that national development goals are in order to improve community welfare by producing quality and competitive human resources. The purpose of this study is to analyze the Unsupervised Learning technique in conducting cluster mapping of the number of libraries at education levels in Indonesia. The data source was obtained from the Ministry of Education and Culture which was processed by the Central Statistics Agency (abbreviated as BPS) with url: bps.go.id/. The data consisted of 34 records where the attribute …


The Great Water Design Challenge: A Noaa Planet Stewards And Illinois Mathematics And Science Academy (Imsa) Collaboration, Elizabeth Martinez Jan 2021

The Great Water Design Challenge: A Noaa Planet Stewards And Illinois Mathematics And Science Academy (Imsa) Collaboration, Elizabeth Martinez

Publications & Research

Through generous NOAA Planet Stewards funding, schools in the Northern Illinois area had the unique opportunity to participate in a one-day design challenge that focused on local and state environmental issues. Student teams, which ranged from fifth grade through high school, engaged in research and design thinking to create innovative responses and solutions to address their selected water challenge. Subject matter experts were available, both virtually and in person, for questions, conversations, and insights as teams worked. Simultaneously team sponsors engaged in their own professional development related to the NOAA Planet Stewards Program. Students showcased their work at the end …


Gender Parity In Science: The Intersection Of The National Education Policy 2020 And The Draft Science, Technology, And Innovation Policy, Jyoti Sharma Jan 2021

Gender Parity In Science: The Intersection Of The National Education Policy 2020 And The Draft Science, Technology, And Innovation Policy, Jyoti Sharma

Teacher India

With International Women’s Day observed on 8 March, Jyoti Sharma’s review of the National Education Policy 2020 and the draft Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy through the lens of gender parity is a timely reminder of the need to support improved participation of women in science.


Teacher Questioning Practices In Early Childhood Science Activities, Erin Hamel, Yuenjung Joo, Soo-Young Hong, Anna Burton Jan 2021

Teacher Questioning Practices In Early Childhood Science Activities, Erin Hamel, Yuenjung Joo, Soo-Young Hong, Anna Burton

Department of Child, Youth, and Family Studies: Faculty Publications

This study explores teachers’ use of questioning during collaborative science exploratory activities. We classified a total of 755 questions across 14 preschool science lessons implemented by four teachers by type (open- or closed-ended) and content (science- or non-science-related) while also recording the intended recipient. Results revealed that, overall, teachers primarily asked closed-ended questions to children during preschool science activities. While closed-ended questions outnumbered open-ended, science-related questions were more likely to be open-ended questions. We noticed this trend whether the teacher directed the question to a group of children or an individual child. Gender of the child recipient was also explored …


School Librarian Preparation And Practice: An Exploration Of The Aasl National School Library Standards And Ala/Aasl/Caep School Librarian Preparation Standards, Elizabeth A. Burns, April M. Dawkins Jan 2021

School Librarian Preparation And Practice: An Exploration Of The Aasl National School Library Standards And Ala/Aasl/Caep School Librarian Preparation Standards, Elizabeth A. Burns, April M. Dawkins

STEMPS Faculty Publications

The American Association of School Librarians (AASL) recently released standards to guide the practice of school librarians. The National School Library Standards for Learners, School Librarians, and School Libraries (2018) were put forward as a single text with integrated frameworks. One year later, the ALA/AASL/CAEP School Librarian Preparation Standards (2019) were adopted to inform the preparation of school librarians. Using a one-way crosswalk analysis, this study explores the alignment of the AASL Standards Framework for School Librarians from the AASL Standards with the ALA/AASL/CAEP Preparation Standards to determine consistencies in expectations as well as identify noted gaps. Findings will assist …


Lights, Camera, Activity! A Systematic Review Of Research On Learner-Generated Videos, Bridgette Shade Epps, Tian Luo, Pauline S. Muljana Jan 2021

Lights, Camera, Activity! A Systematic Review Of Research On Learner-Generated Videos, Bridgette Shade Epps, Tian Luo, Pauline S. Muljana

STEMPS Faculty Publications

Aim/Purpose

The current literature discusses the use and benefits of learner-generated videos (LGVs). However, it rarely addresses any correlation between the types of subjects that are best suited for using these videos or what techniques should accompany the use of LGVs.

Background

This systematic review synthesizes current literature to identify patterns and implications that develop from the use of LGVs so that their future use can be both consistent and effective. This paper also reviews the studies to establish the most consistent educational benefits that emerge from this activity.

Methodology

Employing the Preferred-Reporting of Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses …


Factors Impacting Students’ Perceptions Of Mathematics, Amber Souza Dec 2020

Factors Impacting Students’ Perceptions Of Mathematics, Amber Souza

Honors Program Theses and Projects

I want to be able to present math in a positive light to all of my future students, regardless of race, gender, and math background. However, for teachers as a whole to be able to take this important step, they must first develop a deeper understanding of why math is a sore spot for many students.


What Help Do Faculty Perceive Is Needed To Improve Their Community Engagement Through Outreach?, Kiyomi D. Deards, Saundra Wever Frerichs, Patricia Wonch Hill, Julia Mcquillan Dec 2020

What Help Do Faculty Perceive Is Needed To Improve Their Community Engagement Through Outreach?, Kiyomi D. Deards, Saundra Wever Frerichs, Patricia Wonch Hill, Julia Mcquillan

Department of Sociology: Faculty Publications

  • A survey-based needs assessment at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, a research-intensive land grant university, explored ways to meet the goal of increasing science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) outreach
  • 40% of surveyed faculty reported barriers to doing STEM outreach
  • Over 50% of faculty reported an inability to individually resolve barriers to STEM outreach in ways that ensure broader community engagement in their research through outreach
  • Using a sociological lens, the current study examined institutional-level barriers and enablers to faculty engaging in outreach
  • Results suggest several institutional approaches to STEM outreach, including creating infrastructure with experts in science communication; providing science …


Size Vs. Number: Assigning Number Words To Discrete And Continuous Quantities, Emily Slusser, Patrick Cravalho Aug 2020

Size Vs. Number: Assigning Number Words To Discrete And Continuous Quantities, Emily Slusser, Patrick Cravalho

Faculty Research, Scholarly, and Creative Activity

No abstract provided.


Exploration Of Lived Experiences Of Science Teachers Of English Language Learners: A Transcendental Phenomenological Study, Uma Maheshwari Ganesan Jul 2020

Exploration Of Lived Experiences Of Science Teachers Of English Language Learners: A Transcendental Phenomenological Study, Uma Maheshwari Ganesan

Department of Teaching, Learning, and Teacher Education: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

English language learners (ELLs) are a talented pool of culturally and linguistically diverse students who are persistently increasing both in absolute size and percentage in the U.S. school population; however, they are underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields in college as well as in the workforce (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2018). Although educational leaders, policy makers, and researchers have emphasized the importance of STEM for the country’s continued prosperity, both education and scientific communities have found it challenging to improve students’ participation in STEM fields (Martinez et al., 2011). Exploring science teachers’ experiences could …


Does Mathematics Training Lead To Better Logical Thinking And Reasoning? A Cross-Sectional Assessment From Students To Professors, Clio Cresswell, Craig P. Speelman Jul 2020

Does Mathematics Training Lead To Better Logical Thinking And Reasoning? A Cross-Sectional Assessment From Students To Professors, Clio Cresswell, Craig P. Speelman

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

© 2020 Cresswell, Speelman. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Mathematics is often promoted as endowing those who study it with transferable skills such as an ability to think logically and critically or to have improved investigative skills, resourcefulness and creativity in problem solving. However, there is scant evidence to back up such claims. This project tested participants with increasing levels of mathematics training on 11 well-studied rational and logical reasoning tasks …


For Us: Towards An Intersectional Leadership Conceptualization By Black Women For Black Girls, Angel Miles Nash, April L. Peters Jun 2020

For Us: Towards An Intersectional Leadership Conceptualization By Black Women For Black Girls, Angel Miles Nash, April L. Peters

Education Faculty Articles and Research

This article is based on a STEM education case study that illumines the work that three Black women school leaders do specifically on behalf of Black girls, and in examining their asset-based approaches, conceptualises their work by articulating an intersectional leadership framework. By historicising and explicating the rich legacy of Black women school leaders, and specifically including the theoretical dispositions in which their pedagogy is rooted, we shine a light on the lacuna that exists in educational leadership that specifically articulates their praxes when working on behalf of students with whom they identify – that is, Black girls. Black women …


Food And Health: Promoting The Importance Of Maintaining A Healthy Diet To Minimize Disease In Individuals At Greatest Risk, Nadjia Edwards May 2020

Food And Health: Promoting The Importance Of Maintaining A Healthy Diet To Minimize Disease In Individuals At Greatest Risk, Nadjia Edwards

Critical and Creative Thinking Capstones Collection

Diets high in calories, saturated fats, sodium, and added sugars can lead to adverse health events such as; heart disease, diabetes, obesity, high blood pressure, stroke, osteoporosis, and certain cancers. Maintaining a healthy diet can help decrease this potential, but those experiencing food insecurity remain at risk as they may have challenges accessing and affording healthier items. Quality may be sacrificed for quantity leading to the purchasing of food that increases these health risks. Initiatives have been developed to address these obstacles, but aren’t widely utilized. This underuse can be due to a lack of emphasis on the importance of …


Learning Context Matters In Maths Performance, Jeny Raphael Apr 2020

Learning Context Matters In Maths Performance, Jeny Raphael

Teacher India

PISA collects background information to understand contextual factors that affect the performance of students. Building on the evidence, Jeny Raphael discusses the impact of the learning environment on the character strengths of students, and its connection to their maths performance.


Data (Mis) Visualization And Its Impact On Academic Advancement And Public Understanding, Nicole R. Webber, Margarita Shawcross, Dale Edwards, Rob Reinsvold, Jingying Crystal Zhen Mar 2020

Data (Mis) Visualization And Its Impact On Academic Advancement And Public Understanding, Nicole R. Webber, Margarita Shawcross, Dale Edwards, Rob Reinsvold, Jingying Crystal Zhen

Society for the Academic Study of Social Imagery

Cultures across the globe are increasingly visual—whether this be due to the popularity of video streaming, advances in the graphic arts, or the rise of accessible software, apps, and other technologies. In fact, while globalization endures as a prominent force, it seems that the rather universal languages of images and numbers do as well. Visualizations—in particular data visualizations—are valued for their efficiency in communicating messages and their efficacy in spurring emotion and instigating action. This gives such images great power.

Although all media consumers must ultimately be accountable for their own ability to interact responsibly with the visual media, educators …


Exploring Innovative Ways To Incorporate The Association Of College And Research Libraries Framework In Graduate Science Teacher Education Eportfolio Projects, Alison Lehner-Quam, Wesley Pitts Jan 2020

Exploring Innovative Ways To Incorporate The Association Of College And Research Libraries Framework In Graduate Science Teacher Education Eportfolio Projects, Alison Lehner-Quam, Wesley Pitts

Publications and Research

This article investigates ways in which student voice informed design research into information literacy instruction in a year-long graduate science education ePortfolio culminating project. Library and science education faculty partnered in a two-year project to create communities of secondary science education students, in two cohorts, who used the ACRL Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education to support their own research and reflections into information literacy. The overarching goal was to improve the course design to help science teachers develop their professional competencies in information literacy to conduct research to support their practice. Examination of students’ responses to research experiences …


Integrative And Contextual Learning In College Algebra: An Interdisciplinary Collaboration With Economics, Choon Shan Lai, Glenn Henshaw, Tao Chen, Soloman Kone Jan 2020

Integrative And Contextual Learning In College Algebra: An Interdisciplinary Collaboration With Economics, Choon Shan Lai, Glenn Henshaw, Tao Chen, Soloman Kone

Publications and Research

Many students consider mathematics too abstract and useless for their academic and career goals. Meanwhile, instructors in quantitative disciplines such as economics find many students mathematically underprepared for their courses. The disconnect between students’ perceptions of the utility of mathematics and their life and career may have contributed to some of the under-performance in learning mathematics. Addressing this problem requires collaboration across disciplines to develop an understanding of each other’s needs, more specifically to develop an integrative platform that allows students to apply mathematical skills in interdisciplinary contexts (Ganter & Barker, 2004). We collaboratively designed and implemented an integrative platform …


Makerlab Annual Report 2020, Calina Glasgow, Amanda Baschnagel, Yitzhak Paul, Amy Vecchione Jan 2020

Makerlab Annual Report 2020, Calina Glasgow, Amanda Baschnagel, Yitzhak Paul, Amy Vecchione

MakerLab Documents

The MakerLab and the Emerging Technology and Experiential Learning Unit team serves the Boise State University students, staff, and faculty. We offer access to emerging technologies, coaching on emerging technologies, and formal instruction on emerging technologies. In 2020, we welcomed a faculty member, a part time staff member, and two new student assistants. We welcomed Associate Professor Yitzhak "Yitzy" Paul who joined us as a faculty member in August 2020. Marisa Hadley joined us as a part-time instruction assistant also in August 2020. This is in addition to our existing team of Cali Glasgow, Amanda Baschnagel, and Amy Vecchione. This …


Her Voice: Engaging And Preparing Girls With Disabilities For Science, Technology, Engineering, And Math Careers, Amy Jane Griffiths, Angel Miles Nash, Zachary Maupin, Sneha Kohli Mathur Jan 2020

Her Voice: Engaging And Preparing Girls With Disabilities For Science, Technology, Engineering, And Math Careers, Amy Jane Griffiths, Angel Miles Nash, Zachary Maupin, Sneha Kohli Mathur

Education Faculty Articles and Research

Science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) related fields comprise the top 30 occupations expected to grow the fastest by 2026. This increase in job opportunities, coupled with the evolution of technology, is creating higher demands for diversity in the labor market. Currently all students require innovative training and support from a young age to pursue STEM careers successfully. However, women and girls with disabilities face unique barriers along the STEM education pipeline. In this paper, we report the current and projected labor market trends in the United States. We then consider how this labor market information can be used by …


Parent Involvement And Its Influence On Children’S Stem Learning: A Review Of The Research, Julie Thomas, Juliana Utley, Soo-Young Hong, Hunkar Korkmaz, Gwen Nugent Jan 2020

Parent Involvement And Its Influence On Children’S Stem Learning: A Review Of The Research, Julie Thomas, Juliana Utley, Soo-Young Hong, Hunkar Korkmaz, Gwen Nugent

Department of Child, Youth, and Family Studies: Faculty Publications

A growing understanding that parents and teachers can effectively collaborate to help children succeed in school has led worldwide policymakers and school leaders to begin deliberate actions to increase parents’ participation in school life. For example, the Chilean Education Minister recently encouraged contracts between parents, schools, and the state to increase parental involvement. The Australian government has formed a Research Alliance for Children and Youth to develop and promote understanding of parent involvement (i.e., what it is, why it matters, how it influences learning) and to build evidence about what works. From a sociological perspective, a school’s organizational boundaries are …