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- Keyword
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- Category Learning (3)
- Basal ganglia (2)
- Classification (2)
- Explicit (2)
- Neostriatum (2)
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- Pigeons (2)
- Association learning (1)
- At-risk Youth (1)
- Base range (1)
- Categorization (1)
- Cognition (1)
- Comparison Stimulus (1)
- Concept learning (1)
- Concurrent schedule (1)
- Conditioned reinforcement (1)
- Conversational self-focus (1)
- Decision making (1)
- Decision-making (1)
- Depressive symptoms (1)
- Discrimination learning (1)
- Emotional regulation (1)
- Excessive reassurance seeking (1)
- Feedback-based learning (1)
- Implicit (1)
- Implicit/Explicit memory (1)
- Implicit/explicit learning (1)
- Information-integration tasks (1)
- Item response theory (IRT) (1)
- Likert scales (1)
- MULTILOG (1)
Articles 1 - 30 of 37
Full-Text Articles in Social and Behavioral Sciences
Washington County Asset Map And Needs Assessment : Building A Network To Serve Youths At Risk For Serious Mental Illness, Jeffrey E. Hecker, Lois-Ann Kuntz, Carol Lane
Washington County Asset Map And Needs Assessment : Building A Network To Serve Youths At Risk For Serious Mental Illness, Jeffrey E. Hecker, Lois-Ann Kuntz, Carol Lane
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
This study is the first in a series of planned investigations into pathways to care for adolescents and young adults with serious mental illness in Washington County. Resources were identified that may support a network for identifying and accessing services. Over 120 agencies were categorized into one of seven types: education, mental health, health, substance use / recovery, community / library, and law enforcement. Web-based information was collected for 85 of these agencies and representatives of 47 of these agencies were interviewed about challenges, collaborations, and ideas for solutions. We found a great deal of collaboration among agencies within different …
Emotion Regulation Deficits And Depression-Related Maladaptive Interpersonal Behaviours, Eliot Fearey, Jesse Evans, Rebecca A. Schwartz-Mette
Emotion Regulation Deficits And Depression-Related Maladaptive Interpersonal Behaviours, Eliot Fearey, Jesse Evans, Rebecca A. Schwartz-Mette
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Coyne’s interpersonal theory of depression posits that those with depressive symptoms engage in maladaptive interpersonal behaviours that, although intended to assuage distress, push away social supports and increase depressive symptoms (Coyne, 1976). Excessive reassurance seeking, negative feedback seeking, and conversational self-focus are three behaviours implicated in Coyne’s theory, yet their correlates- apart from depressive symptoms- are poorly understood. The current study considered the potential role of intrapersonal emotion regulation deficits as an additional vulnerability factor for these behaviours. Mediation models further tested whether linkages between emotion regulation deficits and maladaptive interpersonal behaviours helped to explain short-term increases in depressive symptoms, …
One Giant Leap For Categorizers: One Small Step For Categorization Theory, David J. Smith, Shawn W. Ell
One Giant Leap For Categorizers: One Small Step For Categorization Theory, David J. Smith, Shawn W. Ell
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
We explore humans’ rule-based category learning using analytic approaches that highlight their psychological transitions during learning. These approaches confirm that humans show qualitatively sudden psychological transitions during rule learning. These transitions contribute to the theoretical literature contrasting single vs. multiple category-learning systems, because they seem to reveal a distinctive learning process of explicit rule discovery. A complete psychology of categorization must describe this learning process, too. Yet extensive formal-modeling analyses confirm that a wide range of current (gradient-descent) models cannot reproduce these transitions, including influential rule-based models (e.g., COVIS) and exemplar models (e.g., ALCOVE). It is an important theoretical conclusion …
Is Pressure Stressful? The Impact Of Pressure On The Stress Response And Category Learning, Shannon L. Mccoy, Steven B. Hutchinson, Lauren Hawthorne, Brandon J. Cosley, Shawn W. Ell
Is Pressure Stressful? The Impact Of Pressure On The Stress Response And Category Learning, Shannon L. Mccoy, Steven B. Hutchinson, Lauren Hawthorne, Brandon J. Cosley, Shawn W. Ell
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
We examine the basic question of whether pressure is stressful. We propose that when examining the role of stress or pressure in cognitive performance it is important to consider the type of pressure, the stress response, and the aspect of cognition assessed. In Experiment 1, outcome pressure was not experienced as stressful but did lead to impaired performance on a rule-based (RB) category learning task and not a more procedural information-integration (II) task. In Experiment 2, the addition of monitoring pressure resulted in a modest stress response to combined pressure and impairment on both tasks. Across experiments, higher stress appraisals …
Targeted Training Of The Decision Rule Benefits Rule-Guided Behavior In Parkinson’S Disease, Shawn W. Ell
Targeted Training Of The Decision Rule Benefits Rule-Guided Behavior In Parkinson’S Disease, Shawn W. Ell
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
The impact of Parkinson’s disease (PD) on rule-guided behavior has received considerable attention in cognitive neuroscience. The majority of research has used PD as a model of dysfunction in fronto-striatal networks, but very few attempts have been made to investigate the possibility of adapting common experimental techniques in an effort to identify the conditions that are most likely to facilitate successful performance. The present study investigated a targeted training paradigm designed to facilitate rule learning and application using rule-based categorization as a model task. Participants received targeted training in which there was no selective-attention demand (i.e., stimuli varied along a …
Data Analysis Using Item Response Theory Methodology: An Introduction To Selected Programs And Applications., Geoffrey L. Thorpe, Andrej Favia
Data Analysis Using Item Response Theory Methodology: An Introduction To Selected Programs And Applications., Geoffrey L. Thorpe, Andrej Favia
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
There are two approaches to psychometrics. Classical test theory is the traditional approach, focusing on test-retest reliability, internal consistency, various forms of validity, and normative data and standardization. Modern test theory or item response theory (IRT) focuses on how specific test items function in assessing constructs. IRT makes it possible to scale test items for difficulty, to design parallel forms of tests, and to provide for adaptive computerized testing (DeMars, 2010). “(T)he basic concepts of item response theory rest upon the individual items of a test rather than upon some aggregate of the item responses such as a test score” …
Unsupervised Category Learning With Integral-Dimension Stimuli, Shawn W. Ell, Gregory F. Ashby, Steven B. Hutchinson
Unsupervised Category Learning With Integral-Dimension Stimuli, Shawn W. Ell, Gregory F. Ashby, Steven B. Hutchinson
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Despite the recent surge in research on unsupervised category learning, the majority of studies have focused on unconstrained tasks in which no instructions are provided about the underlying category structure. Relatively little research has focused on constrained tasks in which the goal is to learn pre-defined stimulus clusters in the absence of feedback. The few studies that have addressed this issue have focused almost exclusively on stimuli for which it is relatively easy to attend selectively to the component dimensions (i.e., separable dimensions). In the present study, we investigated the ability of participants to learn categories constructed from stimuli for …
The Impact Of Category Separation On Unsupervised Categorization, Shawn W. Ell, Gregoryh F. Ashby
The Impact Of Category Separation On Unsupervised Categorization, Shawn W. Ell, Gregoryh F. Ashby
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Most previous research on unsupervised categorization has used unconstrained tasks in which no instructions are provided about the underlying category structure or the stimuli are not clustered into categories. Few studies have investigated constrained tasks in which the goal is to learn pre-defined stimulus clusters in the absence of feedback. These studies have generally reported good performance when the stimulus clusters could be separated by a one-dimensional rule. The present study investigated the limits of this ability. Results suggest that even when two stimulus clusters are as widely separated as in previous studies, performance is poor if within-category variance on …
Peer Acceptance And Friendship As Predictors Of Early Adolescents' Adjustment Across The Middle School Transition, Julie Newman Kingery, Cynthia A. Erdley, Katherine C. Marshall
Peer Acceptance And Friendship As Predictors Of Early Adolescents' Adjustment Across The Middle School Transition, Julie Newman Kingery, Cynthia A. Erdley, Katherine C. Marshall
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
This study examines several aspects of adolescents' pretransition peer relationships as predictors of their adjustment to middle school. Participants were 365 students (175 boys; 99% Caucasian) involved in the Time 1 (the spring of fifth grade) and Time 2 (the fall of sixth grade) assessments. Adolescents completed measures that assessed peer acceptance, number of friends, the quality of a specific mutual friendship, loneliness, depression, self-esteem, and involvement in school. Academic achievement and absentee data were obtained from student files. Regression analyses indicated that the pretransition peer variables predicted posttransition loneliness, self-esteem, school involvement, and academic achievement. The patterns of prediction …
When Bad Stress Goes Good: Increased Threat Reactivity Predicts Improved Category Learning Performance, Shawn W. Ell, Brandon Cosley, Shannon L. Mccoy
When Bad Stress Goes Good: Increased Threat Reactivity Predicts Improved Category Learning Performance, Shawn W. Ell, Brandon Cosley, Shannon L. Mccoy
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
The way in which we respond to everyday stressors can have a profound impact on cognitive functioning. Maladaptive stress responses in particular are generally associated with impaired cognitive performance. We argue, however, that the cognitive system mediating task performance is also a critical determinant of the stress-cognition relationship. Consistent with this prediction, we observed that stress reactivity consistent with a maladaptive, threat response differentially predicted performance on two categorization tasks. Increased threat reactivity predicted enhanced performance on an information-integration task (i.e., learning is thought to depend upon a procedural-based memory system), and a (nonsignificant) trend for impaired performance on a …
Rule-Based Categorization Deficits In Focal Basal Ganglia Lesion And Parkinson’S Disease Patients, Shawn W. Ell, Andrea Weinstein, Richard Ivry
Rule-Based Categorization Deficits In Focal Basal Ganglia Lesion And Parkinson’S Disease Patients, Shawn W. Ell, Andrea Weinstein, Richard Ivry
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Patients with basal ganglia (BG) pathology are consistently found to be impaired on rule-based category learning tasks in which learning is thought to depend upon the use of an explicit, hypothesis-guided strategy. The factors that influence this impairment remain unclear. Moreover, it remains unknown if the impairments observed in patients with degenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease (PD) are also observed in those with focal BG lesions. In the present study, we tested patients with either focal BG lesions or PD on two categorization tasks that varied in terms of their demands on selective attention and working memory. Individuals with …
A Functionalist Perspective On Social Anxiety And Avoidant Personality Disorder, Peter J. Lafreniere
A Functionalist Perspective On Social Anxiety And Avoidant Personality Disorder, Peter J. Lafreniere
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
A developmental-evolutionary perspective is used to synthesize basic research from the neurosciences, ethology, genetics, and developmental psychology into a unified framework for understanding the nature and origins of social anxiety and avoidant personality disorder. Evidence is presented that social anxiety disorder (social phobia) and avoidant personality disorder may be alternate conceptualizations of the same disorder because they have virtually the same symptoms and genetic basis, and respond to the same pharmacologic and psychotherapeutic interventions. A functionalist perspective on social anxiety is formulated to (a) explain the origins of normative states of anxiety, (b) outline developmental pathways in the transition from …
Criterial Noise Effects On Rule-Based Category Learning: The Impact Of Delayed Feedback, Shawn W. Ell, David A. Ing, Todd W. Maddox
Criterial Noise Effects On Rule-Based Category Learning: The Impact Of Delayed Feedback, Shawn W. Ell, David A. Ing, Todd W. Maddox
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Variability in the representation of the decision criterion is assumed in many category learning models yet few studies have directly examined its impact. On each trial, criterial noise should result in drift in the criterion and will negatively impact categorization accuracy, particularly in rule-based categorization tasks where learning depends upon the maintenance and manipulation of decision criteria. The results of three experiments test this hypothesis and examine the impact of working memory on slowing the drift rate. Experiment 1 examined the effect of drift by inserting a 5 s delay between the categorization response and the delivery of corrective feedback, …
Cerebellar Pathology Does Not Impair Performance On Identification Or Categorization Tasks, Shawn Ell, Richard B. Ivry
Cerebellar Pathology Does Not Impair Performance On Identification Or Categorization Tasks, Shawn Ell, Richard B. Ivry
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
In comparison to the basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex, and medial temporal lobes, the cerebellum has been absent from recent research on the neural substrates of categorization and identification, two prominent tasks in the learning and memory literature. To investigate the contribution of the cerebellum to these tasks, we tested patients with cerebellar pathology (seven with bilateral degeneration, six with unilateral lesions, and two with midline damage) on rule-based and information-integration categorization tasks and an identification task. In rule-based tasks, it is assumed that participants learn the categories through an explicit reasoning process. In information-integration tasks, optimal performance requires the integration …
Profile Effects In Early Bilingual Language And Literacy, D. Kimbrough Oller, Alan Cobo-Lewis, Barbara Z. Pearson
Profile Effects In Early Bilingual Language And Literacy, D. Kimbrough Oller, Alan Cobo-Lewis, Barbara Z. Pearson
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Bilingual children's language and literacy is stronger in some domains than others. Reanalysis of data from a broad-scale study of monolingual English and bilingual Spanish-English learners in Miami provided a clear demonstration of "profile effects," where bilingual children perform at varying levels compared to monolinguals across different test types. The profile effects were strong and consistent across conditions of socioeconomic status, language in the home, and school setting (two way or English immersion). The profile effects indicated comparable performance of bilingual and monolingual children in basic reading tasks, but lower vocabulary scores for the bilinguals in both languages. Other test …
Emotions, Not Just Decision-Making Processes, Are Critical To An Evolutionary Model Of Human Behavior, Glenn E. Weisfeld, Peter J. Lafreniere
Emotions, Not Just Decision-Making Processes, Are Critical To An Evolutionary Model Of Human Behavior, Glenn E. Weisfeld, Peter J. Lafreniere
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
An evolutionary model of human behavior should privilege emotions: essential, phylogenetically ancient behaviors that learning and decision making only subserve. Infants and non-mammals lack advanced cognitive powers but still survive. Decision making is only a means to emotional ends, which organize and prioritize behavior. The emotion of pride/shame, or dominance striving, bridges the social and biological sciences via internalization of cultural norms.
The Effects Of Category Overlap On Information-Integration And Rule-Based Category Learning, Shawn W. Ell, Gregory F. Ashby
The Effects Of Category Overlap On Information-Integration And Rule-Based Category Learning, Shawn W. Ell, Gregory F. Ashby
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Three experiments investigate whether the amount of category overlap constrains the decision strategies used in category learning, and whether such constraints depend on the type of category structures used. Experiments 1 and 2 used a category learning task requiring perceptual integration of information from multiple dimensions (information-integration task) and Experiment 3 used a task requiring the application of an explicit strategy (rule-based task). In the information-integration task, participants used perceptual-integration strategies at moderate levels of category overlap, but explicit strategies at extreme levels of overlap – even when such strategies were sub-optimal. In contrast, in the rule-based task, participants used …
Focal Putamen Lesions Impair Learning In Rule-Based, But Not Information-Integration Categorization Tasks, Shawn W. Ell, Natalie L. Marchant, Richard B. Ivry
Focal Putamen Lesions Impair Learning In Rule-Based, But Not Information-Integration Categorization Tasks, Shawn W. Ell, Natalie L. Marchant, Richard B. Ivry
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Previous research on the role of the basal ganglia in category learning has focused on patients with Parkinson’s and Huntington’s Disease, neurodegenerative diseases frequently accompanied by additional cortical pathology. The goal of the present study was to extend this work to patients with basal ganglia lesions due to stroke, asking if similar changes in performance would be observed in patients with more focal pathology. Patients with basal ganglia lesions centered in the putamen (6 left side, 1 right side) were tested on rule-based and information-integration visual categorization tasks. In rule-based tasks, it is assumed that participants can learn the category …
Final Syllable Lengthening (Fsl) In Infant Vocalizations, Suneeti Nathani, D. Kimbrough Oller, Alan Cobo-Lewis
Final Syllable Lengthening (Fsl) In Infant Vocalizations, Suneeti Nathani, D. Kimbrough Oller, Alan Cobo-Lewis
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Final Syllable Lengthening (FSL) has been extensively examined in infant vocalizations in order to determine whether its basis is biological or learned. Findings suggest there may be a U-shaped developmental trajectory for FSL. The present study sought to verify this pattern and to determine whether vocal maturity and deafness influence FSL. Eight normally hearing infants, aged 0 ; 3 to 1 ; 0, and eight deaf infants, aged 0 ; 8 to 4 ; 0, were examined at three levels of prelinguistic vocal development: precanonical, canonical, and postcanonical. FSL was found at all three levels suggesting a biological basis for …
Phonological Translation In Bilingual And Monolingual Children, D. Kimbrough Oller, Alan Cobo-Lewis, Rebecca E. Eilers
Phonological Translation In Bilingual And Monolingual Children, D. Kimbrough Oller, Alan Cobo-Lewis, Rebecca E. Eilers
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Bilingual children face a variety of challenges that their monolingual peers do not. For instance, switching between languages requires the phonological translation of proper names, a skill that requires mapping the phonemic units of one language onto the phonemic units of the other. Proficiency of phonological awareness has been linked to reading success, but little information is available about phonological awareness across multiple phonologies. Furthermore, the relationship between this kind of phonological awareness and reading has never been addressed. The current study investigated phonological translation using a task designed to measure children's ability to map one phonological system onto another. …
Preventive Intervention As Means Of Clarifying Direction Of Effects In Socialization: Anxious-Withdrawn Preschoolers Case, Peter J. Lafreniere, France Capuano
Preventive Intervention As Means Of Clarifying Direction Of Effects In Socialization: Anxious-Withdrawn Preschoolers Case, Peter J. Lafreniere, France Capuano
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
An indicated preventive intervention research program integrating attachment, attributional, and behaviorist perspectives was conducted to test the hypothesis that parent-child relationship disturbances directly effect the child's adjustment to the preschool. Anxious-withdrawn preschool children and their mothers were divided equally into treatment and control groups, and assessed on maternal self-report of parenting stress, behavioral ratings of mother-child interaction, and teacher ratings of the children in the preschool classroom. Results showed significant changes in the treatment group: mothers in the treatment group moderated their level of control to a more appropriate, less intrusive level, while children in the treatment group showed an …
Psychotherapy And Counseling With Minorities: A Cognitive Approach To Individual And Cultural Differences, By Manuel Ramirez Iii, Lisa E. Johnson, Geoffrey L. Thorpe
Psychotherapy And Counseling With Minorities: A Cognitive Approach To Individual And Cultural Differences, By Manuel Ramirez Iii, Lisa E. Johnson, Geoffrey L. Thorpe
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
No abstract provided.
On Discriminating Temporal Relations: Is It Relational?, Leon R. Dreyfus, J. Gregor Fetterman, D. Alan Stubbs, Susan Montello
On Discriminating Temporal Relations: Is It Relational?, Leon R. Dreyfus, J. Gregor Fetterman, D. Alan Stubbs, Susan Montello
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Pigeons were presented on each trial with a pair of keylight stimuli that varied in duration. One of two subsequent choices was reinforced, depending on which of the two stimuli was longer. For some pairs, the duration of one stimulus was predictive of relative duration, but for other pairs, absolute duration was unpredictive. Choice responses depended on relative differences between the stimuli, but were also controlled to some degree by absolute duration of the second member of the pair. Individual differences in control by absolute and relative duration were evident. Those pigeons whose behavior was most influenced by absolute duration …
Emotional Processing In The Treatment Of Simple Phobia: A Comparison Of Imaginal And In Vivo Exposure, Jeffrey E. Hecker
Emotional Processing In The Treatment Of Simple Phobia: A Comparison Of Imaginal And In Vivo Exposure, Jeffrey E. Hecker
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Two groups of moderately snake phobic college students were given either imaginal or in vivo exposure treatment. The groups were compared on self-report and physiological measures of fear activation during exposure trials, as well as on within- and across-session habituation of fear responses. On these measures, as well as on treatment outcome, the two groups were found to be very similar. The results lend further support to the importance of the concept of emotional processing in understanding fear reduction processes. Differences in treatment procedure may be important only when one procedure facilitates emotional processing more than another.
Confounding Of Assessment Method With Reaction Assessed In The Three Systems Model Of Fear And Anxiety: A Comment On Douglas, Lindsay And Brooks, Geoffrey L. Thorpe
Confounding Of Assessment Method With Reaction Assessed In The Three Systems Model Of Fear And Anxiety: A Comment On Douglas, Lindsay And Brooks, Geoffrey L. Thorpe
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
No abstract provided.
Application Of Imagery Theory To Sport Psychology: Some Preliminary Findings, Jeffrey E. Hecker, Linda M. Kaczor
Application Of Imagery Theory To Sport Psychology: Some Preliminary Findings, Jeffrey E. Hecker, Linda M. Kaczor
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Bioinformational theory has been proposed by Lang (1979a), who suggests that mental images can be understood as products of the brain's information processing capacity. Imagery involves activation of a network of propositionally coded information stored in long-term memory. Propositions concerning physiological and behavioral responses provide a prototype for overt behavior. Processing of response information is associated with somatovisceral arousal. The theory has implications for imagery rehearsal in sport psychology and can account for a variety of findings in the mental practice literature. Hypotheses drawn from bioinformational theory were tested. College athletes imagined four scenes during which their heart rates were …
Physical And Emotional States As Memory-Relevant Factors: Cognitive Monitoring By Young Children, Donald S. Hayes, L. Carol Scott, Bruce E. Chemelski, Janelle Johnson
Physical And Emotional States As Memory-Relevant Factors: Cognitive Monitoring By Young Children, Donald S. Hayes, L. Carol Scott, Bruce E. Chemelski, Janelle Johnson
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
The Flavell (l981) model of cognitive monitoring and metamnemonic development was tested by four experiments conducted to determine whether preschool children (1) recognize that mood, fatigue, and fear are variables that influence learning; and (2) self-monitor their internal states and adjust their study behavior when they are sad or tired.
Insight Versus Rehearsal In Cognitive-Behavior Therapy: A Crossover Study With Sixteen Phobics, Geoffrey L. Thorpe, Jeffrey E. Hecker, Lorraine A. Cavallaro, Gordon E. Kulberg
Insight Versus Rehearsal In Cognitive-Behavior Therapy: A Crossover Study With Sixteen Phobics, Geoffrey L. Thorpe, Jeffrey E. Hecker, Lorraine A. Cavallaro, Gordon E. Kulberg
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
Although cognitive restructuring (CR) procedures have not proven very helpful for phobics in recent studies, insight and rehearsal components of CR have often been confounded. To seek possible differences in effectiveness between insight and rehearsal, we treated 16 phobics (eight agoraphobics and eight others) with four sessions of each method, using a counterbalanced crossover design with 1-month follow-ups after each treatment component. Significantly fewer sessions were attended by the clients in the rehearsal/insight sequence, and benefit ratings made by project completers significantly favoured insight/rehearsal. Few other treatment group differences were seen, but those that emerged gave the advantage to insight. …
Relationship Between Perceived Physical Ability And Indexes Of Actual Physical Fitness, Bill Thornton, Richard M. Ryckman, Michael A. Robbins, Joseph Donolli, Gareth Biser
Relationship Between Perceived Physical Ability And Indexes Of Actual Physical Fitness, Bill Thornton, Richard M. Ryckman, Michael A. Robbins, Joseph Donolli, Gareth Biser
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
No abstract provided.
Fear Reduction Processes In Imaginal And In Vivo Flooding: A Comment On James' Review, Jeffrey E. Hecker, Geoffrey L. Thorpe
Fear Reduction Processes In Imaginal And In Vivo Flooding: A Comment On James' Review, Jeffrey E. Hecker, Geoffrey L. Thorpe
Psychology Faculty Scholarship
The research comparing imaginal and in vivo exposure in the treatment of clinically significant fear, recently reviewed by James (1986), is reexamined from the perspective of bioinformational theory and the concept of emotional processing. Fear is assumed to be stored in long term memory as a network of propositionally-coded information, which has to be processed if treatment is to be successful. Emotional processing is indicated by activation of fear responses and their habituation within and across treatment sessions. Consistent with the theory, our review indicates that successful treatment via imaginal and in vivo exposure is indeed related to activation and …