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2008

Selected Works

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Biology

Articles 1 - 30 of 36

Full-Text Articles in Life Sciences

Distribution Patterns Of Sciurus Niger (Eastern Fox Squirrel) Leaf Nests Within Woodlots Across A Suburban/Urban Landscape, Carmen M. Salsbury Nov 2008

Distribution Patterns Of Sciurus Niger (Eastern Fox Squirrel) Leaf Nests Within Woodlots Across A Suburban/Urban Landscape, Carmen M. Salsbury

Carmen M. Salsbury

To determine habitat characteristics that influence Sciurus niger (Eastern Fox Squirrel) abundance and distribution within a suburban/urban landscape in the midwestern United States, I documented the density and placement of fox squirrel leaf nests in 20 woodlots in the Indianapolis metropolitan area. Marion County, IN. The woodlots varied in size (0.94 to 19.5 ha), approximate age, shape, and degree of isolation from other woodlots and suitable squirrel habitat in the surrounding area. Only 8.0% of nests were located in a tree with another nest, and nests were randomly distributed in all but one woodlot, where they were uniformly dispersed. Nest …

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Quorum-Sensing Signals In The Microbial Community Of The Cabbage White Butterfly Larval Midgut, Bradley R. Borlee, Grant D. Geske, Courtney Jaime Robinson, Helen E. Blackwell, Jo Handelsman Sep 2008

Quorum-Sensing Signals In The Microbial Community Of The Cabbage White Butterfly Larval Midgut, Bradley R. Borlee, Grant D. Geske, Courtney Jaime Robinson, Helen E. Blackwell, Jo Handelsman

Courtney Robinson

The overall goal of this study was to examine the role of quorum-sensing (QS) signals in a multispecies microbial community. Toward this aim, we studied QS signals produced by an indigenous member and an invading pathogen of the microbial community of the cabbage white butterfly (CWB) larval midgut (Pieris rapae). As an initial step, we characterized the QS system in Pantoea CWB304, which was isolated from the larval midgut. A luxI homolog, designated panI, is necessary for the production of N-acyl-L-homoserine lactones (AHLs) by Pantoea CWB304. To determine whether AHL signals are exchanged in the alkaline environment of the midgut, …

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A Darwinist View Of The Living Constitution, Scott Dodson Sep 2008

A Darwinist View Of The Living Constitution, Scott Dodson

Scott Dodson

The metaphor of a “living" Constitution imports terms from biology into law and, in the process, relies on biology for its meaning. A proper understanding of biology is therefore central to understanding living constitutionalism. Yet despite its rampant use by both opponents and proponents of living constitutionalism, and despite the current fervent debate over whether biology can be useful to the law, no one has evaluated the metaphor from a biological perspective.

This Essay begins that inquiry in an interdisciplinary study of law, science, and philology. The Essay first evaluates the metaphor as it is currently used and concludes that …

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Causes Of Mortality Of Wild Birds Submitted To The Charles Darwin Research Station, Santa Cruz, Galápagos, Ecuador From 2002-2004, Patricia Parker, Nicole L. Gottdenker, Timothy Walsh, Gustavo Jiménez-Uzcátegui, Franklin Betancourt, Marilyn Cruz, Catherine Soos, R. Eric Miller Sep 2008

Causes Of Mortality Of Wild Birds Submitted To The Charles Darwin Research Station, Santa Cruz, Galápagos, Ecuador From 2002-2004, Patricia Parker, Nicole L. Gottdenker, Timothy Walsh, Gustavo Jiménez-Uzcátegui, Franklin Betancourt, Marilyn Cruz, Catherine Soos, R. Eric Miller

Patricia Parker

Necropsy findings were reviewed from wild birds submitted to the Charles Darwin Research Station, Santa Cruz Island, Galápagos Archipelago between 2004 and 2006. One hundred and ninety cases from 27 different species were submitted, and 178 of these cases were evaluated grossly or histologically. Trauma and trauma-related deaths (n=141) dominated necropsy submissions. Infectious causes of avian mortality included myiasis due to Philornis sp. (n=6), avian pox (n=1), and schistosomosis (n=1).

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Soluble Factors From Plasmodium Falciparum-Infected Erythrocytes Induce Apoptosis In Human Brain Vascular Endothelial And Neuroglia Cells, Winston A. Anderson Aug 2008

Soluble Factors From Plasmodium Falciparum-Infected Erythrocytes Induce Apoptosis In Human Brain Vascular Endothelial And Neuroglia Cells, Winston A. Anderson

Winston Anderson

The severity of malaria is multi-factorial. It is associated with parasite-induced alteration in pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine and chemokine levels in host serum and cerebrospinal fluid. It is also associated with sequestration and cytoadherence of parasitized erythrocytes (pRBCs) in post-capillary venules and blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction. The role of these factors in development of vascular injury and tissue damage in malaria patients is unclear. While some studies indicate a requirement for pRBC adhesion to vascular endothelial cells (ECs) in brain capillaries to induce apoptosis and BBB damage, others show no role of apoptosis resulting from adhesion of pRBC to EC. …

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Biocidal Performance Of Acrylated Glyphosate In A Model Photopolymerizable Coating Formulation, Victoria Piunova, Daniel Berger, Douglas C. Neckers, George S. Bullerjahn, Robert Michael Mckay, Andrei V. Federov Aug 2008

Biocidal Performance Of Acrylated Glyphosate In A Model Photopolymerizable Coating Formulation, Victoria Piunova, Daniel Berger, Douglas C. Neckers, George S. Bullerjahn, Robert Michael Mckay, Andrei V. Federov

Robert Michael McKay

Acrylated glyphosate was blended into a model polyolacrylate formulation and copolymerized. The resulting copolymer retains herbicidal activity similar to that of the monomer as indicated by the results of biological tests. No release of biocide from the coating was observed. The potential value of these biologically active acrylic formulations as biofouling compositions has been demonstrated by field trials.

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Structure Of A Signal Transduction Regulator, Rack1, From Arabidopsis Thaliana, Hemayet Ullah Jul 2008

Structure Of A Signal Transduction Regulator, Rack1, From Arabidopsis Thaliana, Hemayet Ullah

Hemayet Ullah

The receptor for activated C-kinase 1 (RACK1) is a highly conserved WD40 repeat scaffold protein found in a wide range of eukaryotic species from Chlamydymonas to plants and humans. In tissues of higher mammals, RACK1 is ubiquitously expressed and has been implicated in diverse signaling pathways involving neuropathology, cellular stress, protein translation, and developmental processes. RACK1 has established itself as a scaffold protein through physical interaction with a myriad of signaling proteins ranging from kinases, phosphatases, ion channels, membrane receptors, G proteins, IP3 receptor, and with widely conserved structural proteins associated with the ribosome. In the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, RACK1A …

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Unraveling Protein Networks With Power Graph Analysis, Loïc Royer, Matthias Reimann, Bill Andreopoulos, Michael Schroeder Jul 2008

Unraveling Protein Networks With Power Graph Analysis, Loïc Royer, Matthias Reimann, Bill Andreopoulos, Michael Schroeder

William B. Andreopoulos

Networks play a crucial role in computational biology, yet their analysis and representation is still an open problem. Power Graph Analysis is a lossless transformation of biological networks into a compact, less redundant representation, exploiting the abundance of cliques and bicliques as elementary topological motifs. We demonstrate with five examples the advantages of Power Graph Analysis. Investigating protein-protein interaction networks, we show how the catalytic subunits of the casein kinase II complex are distinguishable from the regulatory subunits, how interaction profiles and sequence phylogeny of SH3 domains correlate, and how false positive interactions among high-throughput interactions are spotted. Additionally, we …

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African Genetic Diversity: Implications For Human Demographic History, Modern Human Origins, And Complex Disease Mapping, Michael C. Campbell, Sarah A. Tishkoff Jun 2008

African Genetic Diversity: Implications For Human Demographic History, Modern Human Origins, And Complex Disease Mapping, Michael C. Campbell, Sarah A. Tishkoff

Michael C. Campbell

Comparative studies of ethnically diverse human populations, particularly in Africa, are important for reconstructing human evolutionary history and for understanding the genetic basis of phenotypic adaptation and complex disease. African populations are characterized by greater levels of genetic diversity, extensive population substructure, and less linkage disequilibrium (LD) among loci compared to non-African populations. Africans also possess a number of genetic adaptations that have evolved in response to diverse climates and diets, as well as exposure to infectious disease. This review summarizes patterns and the evolutionary origins of genetic diversity present in African populations, as well as their implications for the …

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Rules Of Engagement: Interspecies Interactions That Regulate Microbial Communities, Ainslie Little, Courtney Jaime Robinson, S Brook Peterson, Kenneth F. Raffa, Jo Handelsman May 2008

Rules Of Engagement: Interspecies Interactions That Regulate Microbial Communities, Ainslie Little, Courtney Jaime Robinson, S Brook Peterson, Kenneth F. Raffa, Jo Handelsman

Courtney Robinson

Microbial communities comprise an interwoven matrix of biological diversity modified by physical and chemical variation over space and time. Although these communities are the major drivers of biosphere processes, relatively little is known about their structure and function, and predictive modeling is limited by a dearth of comprehensive ecological principles that describe microbial community processes. Here we discuss working definitions of central ecological terms that have been used in various fashions in microbial ecology, provide a framework by focusing on different types of interactions within communities, review the status of the interface between evolutionary and ecological study, and highlight important …

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Dna Inside, Lori B. Andrews May 2008

Dna Inside, Lori B. Andrews

Lori B. Andrews

DNA computers may help scientists overcome the limitations of silicon-based machines, leading to new nano-scale products as well as smart drugs that adjust to their biological environment.

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Writing Research Proposal: Literature Review And Database Search, Mamoudou H. Dicko Prof. May 2008

Writing Research Proposal: Literature Review And Database Search, Mamoudou H. Dicko Prof.

Pr. Mamoudou H. DICKO, PhD

The maiden proposed research project should demonstrate that the present study will add a significant knowledge on the subject. The main objective of the literature research is to allow that the statement of the research need will clearly establish the objective of the new study.

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Short Report: Detection Of Plasmodium Falciparum Histidine-Rich Protein Ii In Saliva Of Malaria Patients, Nana Wilson, Andrew A. Adjei, Winston A. Anderson, Stella Baidoo, Jonathan K. Stiles Apr 2008

Short Report: Detection Of Plasmodium Falciparum Histidine-Rich Protein Ii In Saliva Of Malaria Patients, Nana Wilson, Andrew A. Adjei, Winston A. Anderson, Stella Baidoo, Jonathan K. Stiles

Winston Anderson

Detection of Plasmodium falciparum parasites in patients with malaria necessitates drawing blood, which increases the risk of accidental infections and is poorly accepted in communities with blood taboos. Thus, non-invasive, cost-effective malaria tests that minimize the need for blood collection are needed. Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein II (PfHRP II) levels in plasma and saliva were compared in malaria-positive and -negative patients in Ghana. Plasma and saliva obtained from 30 thick-film positive and 10 negative children were evaluated for PfHRP II by ELISA. Among the 30 children with positive blood smear, 16 (53%) were PfHRP II positive in plasma and 13 …

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Phospholipase Dα3 Is Involved In The Hyperosmotic Response In Arabidopsis, Xuemin Wang, Yueyun Hong, Xiangqing Pan, Ruth Welti Feb 2008

Phospholipase Dα3 Is Involved In The Hyperosmotic Response In Arabidopsis, Xuemin Wang, Yueyun Hong, Xiangqing Pan, Ruth Welti

Xuemin (Sam) Wang

Rapid activation of phospholipase D (PLD), which hydrolyzes membrane lipids to generate phosphatidic acid (PA), occurs under various hyperosmotic conditions, including salinity and water deficiency. The Arabidopsis thaliana PLD family has 12 members, and the function of PLD activation in hyperosmotic stress responses has remained elusive. Here, we show that knockout (KO) and overexpression (OE) of previously uncharacterized PLDα3 alter plant response to salinity and water deficit. PLDα3 uses multiple phospholipids as substrates with distinguishable preferences, and alterations of PLDα3 result in changes in PA level and membrane lipid composition. PLDα3-KO plants display increased sensitivities to salinity and water deficiency …

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Isolation And Characterization Of Vibrio Tubiashii Outer Membrane Proteins And Determination Of A Toxr Homolog, Broderick Eribo Jan 2008

Isolation And Characterization Of Vibrio Tubiashii Outer Membrane Proteins And Determination Of A Toxr Homolog, Broderick Eribo

Broderick Eribo

Outer membrane proteins (OMPs) expressed by Vibrio tubiashii under different environmental growth conditions were characterized by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, N-terminal amino acid sequencing, and PCR analyses. Results showed the presence of a 38- to 40-kDa OmpU-like protein and ompU gene, a maltoporin-like protein, several novel OMPs, and a regulatory toxR homolog.

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Ethnogenetic Layering (El): An Alternative To The Traditional Race Model In Human Variation And Health Disparity Studies, Fatimah Linda Collier Jackson Jan 2008

Ethnogenetic Layering (El): An Alternative To The Traditional Race Model In Human Variation And Health Disparity Studies, Fatimah Linda Collier Jackson

Fatimah Linda Collier Jackson

Traditionally, studies in human biodiversity, disease risk, and health disparities have defined populations in the context of typological racial models. However, such racial models are often imprecise generalizations that fail to capture important local patterns of human biodiversity.
More explicit, detailed, and integrated information on relevant geographic, environmental, cultural, genetic, historical, and demographic variables are needed to understand local group expressions of disease inequities. This paper details the methods used in ethnogenetic layering (EL), a non-typological alternative to the current reliance of the biological racial paradigm in public health, epidemiology, and biomedicine.
EL is focused on geographically identified microethnic groups …

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Temporal Evolution Of Methane Cycling And Phylogenetic Diversity Of Archaea In Sediments From A Deep-Sea Whale Fall In Monterey Canyon (Ca), Shana K. Goffredi, Regina Wilpiszeski, Ray Lee, Victoria J. Orphan Jan 2008

Temporal Evolution Of Methane Cycling And Phylogenetic Diversity Of Archaea In Sediments From A Deep-Sea Whale Fall In Monterey Canyon (Ca), Shana K. Goffredi, Regina Wilpiszeski, Ray Lee, Victoria J. Orphan

Shana Goffredi

Whale-falls represent localized areas of extreme organic enrichment in an otherwise oligotrophic deep-sea environment. Anaerobic remineralization within these habitats is typically portrayed as sulfidogenic; however, we demonstrate that these systems are also favorable for diverse methane-producing archaeal assemblages, representing up to 40% of total cell counts. Chemical analyses revealed elevated methane and depleted sulfate concentrations in sediments under the whale-fall, as compared to surrounding sediments. Carbon was enriched (up to 3.5%) in whale-fall sediments, as well as the surrounding sea floor to at least 10 m, forming a ‘bulls eye’ of elevated carbon. The diversity of sedimentary archaea associated with …

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Differential Degradation Of Extraplastidic And Plastidic Lipids During Freezing And Post-Freezing Recovery In Arabidopsis Thaliana, Xuemin Wang, Weiqi Li, Ruiping Wang, Maoyin Li, Lixia Li, Chuanming Wang, Ruth Welti Jan 2008

Differential Degradation Of Extraplastidic And Plastidic Lipids During Freezing And Post-Freezing Recovery In Arabidopsis Thaliana, Xuemin Wang, Weiqi Li, Ruiping Wang, Maoyin Li, Lixia Li, Chuanming Wang, Ruth Welti

Xuemin (Sam) Wang

Changes in membrane lipid composition play important roles in plant adaptation to and survival after freezing. Plant response to cold and freezing involves three distinct phases: cold acclimation, freezing, and post-freezing recovery. Considerable progress has been made toward understanding lipid changes during cold acclimation and freezing, but little is known about lipid alteration during post-freezing recovery. We previously showed that phospholipase D (PLD) is involved in lipid hydrolysis and Arabidopsis thaliana freezing tolerance. This study was undertaken to determine how lipid species change during post-freezing recovery and to determine the effect of two PLDs, PLD#1;1 and PLD, on lipid changes …

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A High Throughput Live Transparent Animal Bioassay To Identify Non-Toxic Small Molecules Or Genes That Regulate Vertebrate Fat Metabolism For Obesity Drug Development, Kevin S. Jones Dec 2007

A High Throughput Live Transparent Animal Bioassay To Identify Non-Toxic Small Molecules Or Genes That Regulate Vertebrate Fat Metabolism For Obesity Drug Development, Kevin S. Jones

Kevin Jones

The alarming rise in the obesity epidemic and growing concern for the pathologic consequences of the metabolic syndrome warrant great need for development of obesity-related pharmacotherapeutics. The search for such therapeutics is severely limited by the slow throughput of animal models of obesity. Amenable to placement into a 96 well plate, zebrafish larvae have emerged as one of the highest throughput vertebrate model organisms for performing small molecule screens. A method for visually identifying non-toxic molecular effectors of fat metabolism using a live transparent vertebrate was developed. Given that increased levels of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) via deletion of CD38 …

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Dendritic Cell Maturation Versus Polarization In Tumor Escape, Michael Lipscomb, Walter J. Storkus, Amy K. Wesa Dec 2007

Dendritic Cell Maturation Versus Polarization In Tumor Escape, Michael Lipscomb, Walter J. Storkus, Amy K. Wesa

Michael Lipscomb

Dendritic cells serve as key immunosurveillance agents throughout the body and orchestrate the coordinate innate and adaptive immune responses to antigenically complex cells and organisms that challenge the host. The ability of dendritic cells to promote beneficial versus irrelevant or even, counterproductive, immunity in the cancer setting depends to a large degree on the operational parameters displayed by the heterogeneous population of dendritic cells found in the tumor microenvironment. This chapter will discuss how tumors manipulate the state of maturation and type of functional polarization displayed by dendritic cells in order to affect immune escape.

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Biogenesis Of Phycobiliproteins. Ii. Cpcs-I And Cpcu Comprise The Heterodimeric Bilin Lyase That Attaches Phycocyanobilin To Cys-82 Of Β-Phycocyanin And Cys-81 Of Allophycocyanin Subunits In Synechococcus Sp. Pcc 7002, Wendy M. Schluchter Dec 2007

Biogenesis Of Phycobiliproteins. Ii. Cpcs-I And Cpcu Comprise The Heterodimeric Bilin Lyase That Attaches Phycocyanobilin To Cys-82 Of Β-Phycocyanin And Cys-81 Of Allophycocyanin Subunits In Synechococcus Sp. Pcc 7002, Wendy M. Schluchter

Wendy M Schluchter

No abstract provided.

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Biogenesis Of Phycobiliproteins. Iii: Cpcm Is The Asparagine Methyltransferase For Phycobiliprotein Β-Subunits In Cyanobacteria, Wendy M. Schluchter Dec 2007

Biogenesis Of Phycobiliproteins. Iii: Cpcm Is The Asparagine Methyltransferase For Phycobiliprotein Β-Subunits In Cyanobacteria, Wendy M. Schluchter

Wendy M Schluchter

No abstract provided.

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The Decline And Recovery Of Four Predatory Fishes From The Southern California Bight, Daniel J. Pondella Ii, Larry G. Allen Dec 2007

The Decline And Recovery Of Four Predatory Fishes From The Southern California Bight, Daniel J. Pondella Ii, Larry G. Allen

Daniel Pondella

What to do about fisheries collapse and the decline of large fishes in marine ecosystems is a critical debate on a global scale. To address one aspect of this debate, a major fisheries management action, the removal of gill nets in 1994 from the nearshore arena in the Southern California Bight (34°26′30″N, 120°27′09″W to 33°32′03″N, 117°07′28″W) was analyzed. First, the impetus for the gill net ban was the crash of the commercial fishery for white seabass (Atractoscion nobilis; Sciaenidae) in the early 1980s. From 1982 to 1997 catch remained at a historically low level (47.8 ± 3.0 mt) when compared …

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Sequential Radiation Through Host-Race Formation: Herbivore Diversity Leads To Diversity In Natural Enemies, Warren G. Abrahamson Ii, C.P. Blair Dec 2007

Sequential Radiation Through Host-Race Formation: Herbivore Diversity Leads To Diversity In Natural Enemies, Warren G. Abrahamson Ii, C.P. Blair

Warren G. Abrahamson, II

No abstract provided.

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Biology Of The Epichloë-Botanophila Interaction: An Intriguing Association Between Fungi And Insects, Thomas L. Bultman, Adrian Leuchtmann Dec 2007

Biology Of The Epichloë-Botanophila Interaction: An Intriguing Association Between Fungi And Insects, Thomas L. Bultman, Adrian Leuchtmann

Thomas L. Bultman

Epichloë fungi (Ascomycota: Clavicipitaceae) are endophytes of grasses that can produce epiphytic stromata on the culms of their hosts. The fungal stromata are visited by Botanophila flies for feeding and egg laying. We review research over the past 20 years that has documented the heterothallic mating system of Epichloë, the mutualistic service of spermatization flies provide for the fungus, and host selection by flies. Flies display an active, stereotypical behavior immediately following oviposition by which spermatia are transferred endozoochorously to stromata. After eggs hatch larvae feed on developing perithecia. Several studies have focused on the cost (consumption of ascospores) to …

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Distribution Of Bipinnaria And Pilidium In Relation To Physical Structure And Uv-B Light In The Water Column Off Anvers Island, Antarctica, I. Bosch, William Jaeckle, Deneb Karentz Dec 2007

Distribution Of Bipinnaria And Pilidium In Relation To Physical Structure And Uv-B Light In The Water Column Off Anvers Island, Antarctica, I. Bosch, William Jaeckle, Deneb Karentz

William Jaeckle

Feeding larvae of Antarctic bottom invertebrates have proven to be scarce in the plankton and consequently our knowledge of their ecology is limited. We collected bipinnaria larvae assignable to the genus Odontaster and several types of pilidium larvae of nemertean worms in quantitative net tows taken during the austral spring and summer 1997-1998 and considered their distribution with respect to the density stratification of the water column and the potential exposure to UV-B (λ = 308 nm). The average number of pilidium and bipinnaria larvae in the upper 40 m of the water column was 0.5 ± 1.0 per m3 …

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Biogenesis Of Phycobiliproteins. I. Cpcs-I And Cpcu Mutants Of The Cyanobacterium Synechococcus Sp. Pcc 7002 Define A Heterodimeric Phycocaynobilin Lyase Specific For Beta -Phycocyanin And Allophycocyanin Subunits, Wendy M. Schluchter Dec 2007

Biogenesis Of Phycobiliproteins. I. Cpcs-I And Cpcu Mutants Of The Cyanobacterium Synechococcus Sp. Pcc 7002 Define A Heterodimeric Phycocaynobilin Lyase Specific For Beta -Phycocyanin And Allophycocyanin Subunits, Wendy M. Schluchter

Wendy M Schluchter

No abstract provided.

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Ecosampler: A Learning Object For Community Sampling, Community Structure, And Succession, Warren G. Abrahamson Ii, M.R. Weaver Dec 2007

Ecosampler: A Learning Object For Community Sampling, Community Structure, And Succession, Warren G. Abrahamson Ii, M.R. Weaver

Warren G. Abrahamson, II

No abstract provided.

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Strain-Dependent Relationship Between Growth Rate And Hyphal Branching In Neurospora Crassa, Michael K. Watters, Erik Lindamood, Margaret Meunich, Ryan Vetor Dec 2007

Strain-Dependent Relationship Between Growth Rate And Hyphal Branching In Neurospora Crassa, Michael K. Watters, Erik Lindamood, Margaret Meunich, Ryan Vetor

Michael Watters

In a previous study of branch frequency in Neurospora crassa focused on the wild-type, no relationship between growth rate and the frequency of hyphal branching was observed. In subsequent experiments, it became clear that while this independence is valid for the wild type and most mutant strains, it fails to hold for a subset of morphological mutants. This study distinguishes a subset of Neurospora morphological mutants for their morphological response to altered growth rate. Growth rates are altered using two different methods: reduced temperature and nutrient-deficient media. This should assure that the observed effect is not due to simple conditional …

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Evidence Of Population-Level Lateralized Behaviour In Giant Water Bugs, Belostoma Flumineum Say (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae): T-Maze Turning Is Left Biased, Scott Kight Dec 2007

Evidence Of Population-Level Lateralized Behaviour In Giant Water Bugs, Belostoma Flumineum Say (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae): T-Maze Turning Is Left Biased, Scott Kight

Scott Kight

Lateralized behaviour occurs in diverse animals, but relatively few studies examine the phenomenon in invertebrates. Here we report a population-level left turn bias in the giant water bug Belostoma flumineum Say (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae) in an underwater T-maze. Individuals made significantly more left turns than right turns, including when they were na ̈ıve and first introduced to the maze. Water bugs also showed significantly longer runs of consecutive left turns than right turns (i.e. LLLLL). The length of these runs, however, did not increase with experience in the maze, suggesting that the effect is not the result of learning. There were …

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