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2018

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Australian Journal of Teacher Education

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Articles 31 - 60 of 90

Full-Text Articles in Education

The Effects Of Writing Instructors’ Motivational Strategies On Student Motivation, Yin Ling Cheung Jan 2018

The Effects Of Writing Instructors’ Motivational Strategies On Student Motivation, Yin Ling Cheung

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

While the last decade has witnessed a growing body of research on student motivation in second language acquisition, research about the impact of writing instructors’ motivational strategies on student motivation has remained underexplored. In order to fill this important gap, this study, guided by motivational strategy framework, investigates the effect of writing instructors’ motivational strategies on student motivation. Participants were 344 first-year undergraduate students taking a writing course at a university in Singapore. Classroom observation schemes, student surveys, and surveys with writing instructors were collected. Findings show that the more the writing instructors reported using strategies in generating students’ initial …


Interculturality And Teacher Education. A Study From Pre-Service Teachers’ Perspective, Eva F. Hinojosa Pareja, M. Carmen López López Jan 2018

Interculturality And Teacher Education. A Study From Pre-Service Teachers’ Perspective, Eva F. Hinojosa Pareja, M. Carmen López López

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Due to the multicultural nature of society and the failure of some of the educational models adopted to respond to cultural diversity, there is a need to pay greater attention to teachers’ training. This study examines Teacher Education students’ beliefs about cultural diversity and their relationship with pre-service teacher training as key aspects in designing intercultural teacher training proposals and improving educational practice. This quantitative, descriptive study was carried out with 1464 participants enrolled in teacher training programs. The results show that future teachers have positive beliefs about cultural diversity in general terms, but their positions diverge when dealing with …


Professional Teaching Standards: A Comparative Analysis Of Their History, Implementation And Efficacy, Kairen Call Jan 2018

Professional Teaching Standards: A Comparative Analysis Of Their History, Implementation And Efficacy, Kairen Call

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Since the publication of results from the first iteration of testing within the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the ensuing media consternation and political rhetoric about teacher quality in education systems around the world, professional standards for teachers have been considered, developed and implemented globally in various forms. Justified by the argument that they raise teacher quality which in turn raises student outcomes, professional standards for teachers are being considered as an integral part of the solution to current deficits in education. This article explores the forces driving and restraining professional standards for teachers within international and Australian …


Exploring Professional Knowing, Being And Becoming Through Inclusive Pedagogical Approach In Action (Ipaa) Framework, Sunanta Klibthong, Joseph S. Agbenyega Jan 2018

Exploring Professional Knowing, Being And Becoming Through Inclusive Pedagogical Approach In Action (Ipaa) Framework, Sunanta Klibthong, Joseph S. Agbenyega

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Despite extensive changes in early childhood inclusive education policy and practice, various barriers continue to inhibit access and participation of children with special needs in inclusive schools. Often mentioned barriers include negative beliefs, lack of understanding of inclusive pedagogy and the effectiveness of professional development to improve teacher knowledge to reduce these barriers. This study reports on a Thai Bureau of Special Education professional development partnership program with an Australian inclusive school in which 16 early childhood teachers from Thailand participated. This community of practice inquiry project generated qualitative data from pre- and post-professional workshops semi-structured interviews and analysis of …


Reading Aloud: Children's Attitudes Toward Being Read To At Home And At School, Susan Ledger, Margaret K. Merga Jan 2018

Reading Aloud: Children's Attitudes Toward Being Read To At Home And At School, Susan Ledger, Margaret K. Merga

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

: Whilst there exists a plethora of research about the benefits of reading aloud on children’s literacy development and a range of government reports highlighting the positive investment return on early intervention strategies such as reading aloud, most literature is presented from an adult perspective. Limited research exists on children’s attitudes toward being read to at home or school or the frequency of reading aloud practices that occur within these contexts. This mixed method study examines reading aloud practices in schools (N=21) and homes (N=220). It captures the attitude toward reading aloud practices from the viewpoint of 220 children aged …


Getting The Most From Google Classroom: A Pedagogical Framework For Tertiary Educators, Keith R. Heggart, Joanne Yoo Jan 2018

Getting The Most From Google Classroom: A Pedagogical Framework For Tertiary Educators, Keith R. Heggart, Joanne Yoo

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Many tertiary institutions have embraced digital learning through the use of online learning platforms and social networks. However, the research about the efficacy of such platforms is confused, as is the field itself, in part because of the rapidly evolving technology, and also because of a lack of clarity about what constitutes a learning platform. In this study, two early career academics and instructors examined the effectiveness of using Google Classroom for final year primary teacher education students to encourage student voice and agency, and to consider how the platform might influence future pedagogies at the tertiary level. The data …


Freedom And Constraint In Teacher Education: Reflections On Experiences Over Time, Amanda Mcgraw Jan 2018

Freedom And Constraint In Teacher Education: Reflections On Experiences Over Time, Amanda Mcgraw

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Teacher education programs in Australia increasingly comply with new and narrowing accountabilities so that they can be approved by diverse regulatory authorities and accredited. This is an auto-biographical narrative study which draws upon the memories of a teacher educator who contrasts her experience of learning to teach in the early 1980s with her recent experience as a Program Leader working with colleagues to design a new Master of Teaching program. She interviews Professor Bernie Neville who was responsible for the design and implementation of the teacher education program she completed in 1983. He reflects on the principles guiding his practice …


Developing Pre-Service Teachers: The Impact Of An Embedded Framework In Literacy And Numeracy., Peter Sellings, Karen Felstead, Anitra Goriss-Hunter Jan 2018

Developing Pre-Service Teachers: The Impact Of An Embedded Framework In Literacy And Numeracy., Peter Sellings, Karen Felstead, Anitra Goriss-Hunter

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

This paper focuses on the development of the academic and personal literacy and numeracy skills of pre-service teachers. It examines how an embedded enhancement framework of literacy and numeracy support named the DEER (Developing, Embedding, Extending, Reflecting) framework by the researchers was created in initial teacher education (ITE) programs in regional Victoria. The implementation of the DEER framework will be discussed and an evaluation of the impact of the DEER framework will be presented. Quantitative data draws on two test results in both literacy and numeracy, comparing the performance of students. These tests were undertaken by pre-service teachers, before and …


Teaching Chemistry In A Spiral Progression Approach: Lessons From Science Teachers In The Philippines, Joymie R. Orbe, Allen A. Espinosa, Janir T. Datukan Jan 2018

Teaching Chemistry In A Spiral Progression Approach: Lessons From Science Teachers In The Philippines, Joymie R. Orbe, Allen A. Espinosa, Janir T. Datukan

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

As the Philippines moves towards implementing the K-12 curriculum, there has been a mismatch in teacher preparation in science. The present teacher education curriculum prepares science teachers to specialise in a specific field (e.g. integrated science, biology, chemistry, and physics). However, in the K-12 curriculum, they are required to teach all the sciences in a spiral progression approach. Hence, this study analysed the experiences of science teachers in teaching chemistry in the K-12 curriculum in order to identify their challenges and how they are overcoming them. Findings suggest that the teacher’s content, pedagogy, and assessment in chemistry are problematic; specifically, …


Maintaining Global Citizenship Education In Schools: A Challenge For Australian Educators And Schools, John Buchanan, Nina Burridge, Andrew Chodkiewicz Jan 2018

Maintaining Global Citizenship Education In Schools: A Challenge For Australian Educators And Schools, John Buchanan, Nina Burridge, Andrew Chodkiewicz

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Teaching students about global citizenship remains a critical challenge for schools and communities, especially in a developed country like Australia. With increasingly difficult national and international contexts and its marginal place in the school curriculum, there is an urgent need to help maintain support for global citizenship education. Recognising the challenges and limitations, key ways to raise its profile include considering available pedagogies, drawing on the existing Australian Global Education framework, taking up existing curriculum opportunities, accessing quality educational resources and relevant teacher education programs, and working in partnership with key Non-Government Organisations.


Language Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs: A Review Of The Literature (2005-2016), Mark Wyatt Jan 2018

Language Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs: A Review Of The Literature (2005-2016), Mark Wyatt

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Research into language teachers’ self-efficacy (LTSE) beliefs, a domain-specific branch of research into teachers’ self-efficacy (TSE) beliefs in general education, has emerged in the past 16 years. To date, though, this emergent domain-specific research field has not been described in depth, with most accounts of it summarised very briefly, even in published research that provides empirical data relating to the specific topic of LTSE beliefs. Guided by a synthetic research ethic, this literature review aims to explore the gap. It highlights the characteristics of this LTSE beliefs research field, discussing the methodology employed by various studies that have elicited LTSE …


A Systematic Review Of The Research On The Knowledge And Skills Of Australian Preservice Teachers, Jennifer Stephenson Jan 2018

A Systematic Review Of The Research On The Knowledge And Skills Of Australian Preservice Teachers, Jennifer Stephenson

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Since knowledge and skills related to curriculum content and pedagogy are crucial for teachers, it is of interest to explore the research relating to what preservice teachers know and can do. Refereed journal articles published between 2005 and 2015 that reported on the assessment of the knowledge or skills of Australian preservice teachers are reviewed. Data were extracted from 52 articles relating to the context of the research, participants in the research and the adequacy of the knowledge and skills of preservice teachers. Most authors expressed some concern about the level of knowledge and skills of preservice teachers and where …


Factors Influencing The Evolution Of Vocational Teachers’ Beliefs And Practices Related To Classroom Management During Teacher Education, Céline Girardet, Jean-Louis Berger Jan 2018

Factors Influencing The Evolution Of Vocational Teachers’ Beliefs And Practices Related To Classroom Management During Teacher Education, Céline Girardet, Jean-Louis Berger

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Two studies were conducted to investigate the evolution of 71 Swiss vocational teachers’ classroom management as a result of the inputs of a teacher education program, and to identify the factors that encouraged or impeded teacher change. Study 1 consisted of a longitudinal survey, and Study 2 of interviews. Longitudinal analyses were performed using a multilevel approach. This mixed-method study revealed that vocational teachers’ classroom management evolved towards the beliefs and practices encouraged by the teacher education program. Years of prior teaching experience and motivations for choosing teaching were found to moderate teachers’ evolutions. Moreover, influential people, providing alternative strategies …


Exploring The Use Of Narratives To Understand Pre-Service Teachers' Practicum Experiences From A Sociocultural Perspective, Gonca Yangin Eksi, Muzeyyen Nazli Gungor Jan 2018

Exploring The Use Of Narratives To Understand Pre-Service Teachers' Practicum Experiences From A Sociocultural Perspective, Gonca Yangin Eksi, Muzeyyen Nazli Gungor

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

This paper reports on an exploratory study designed to investigate what aspects of practicum pre-service teachers narrate as meaningful experiences and how these narratives help them promote teacher awareness and professional development. The study is conducted with 21 fourth-year pre-service teachers attending the practicum at the time of the study. The data consist of 84 narratives written in 2015-16 academic year and oral interviews with pre-service teachers conducted in seminar courses. A two-person review panel analysed the data through inductive data analysis from a sociocultural perspective. The analysis points to the nature of narratives, the practicum school context these narratives …


Dialogic Communication In The One-To-One Improvisation Lesson: A Qualitative Study, Leon R. De Bruin Jan 2018

Dialogic Communication In The One-To-One Improvisation Lesson: A Qualitative Study, Leon R. De Bruin

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

This qualitative study investigates the dialogic interactions between teacher and student that enhance learning and teaching within the one-to-one music improvisation lesson. This study analyses the ways teachers elicit student actions, thoughts and processes that develop student skills, critical and creative thinking processes necessary for improvisational development. Interactions and interplay between six Australian conservatoire improvisation students and their teachers were investigated. Data reveal dialogic interactions that span instruction, conversation, inquiry and enablement of student knowledge and skills that constitute a complex socio-cultural tapestry of discursive threads. Teacher-student interactions that activate desired creative student activity engage meta-cognitive processes and the cultivation …


Creating Multicultural Music Opportunities In Teacher Education: Sharing Diversity Through Songs, Dawn Joseph, Rohan Nethsinghe, Alberto Cabedo Mas Jan 2018

Creating Multicultural Music Opportunities In Teacher Education: Sharing Diversity Through Songs, Dawn Joseph, Rohan Nethsinghe, Alberto Cabedo Mas

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

This paper contributes to the knowledge base for preparing pre-service teachers (PSTs) for contemporary multicultural classrooms. To do so, we refer to our ongoing project “See, Listen and Share: Exploring intercultural music education in a transnational experience” across three Higher Education sites (Australia and Spain). Drawing on our narrative, and PSTs’ questionnaire data, using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis to analyze and code the PST data, we report on our initial experience and findings across the three sites and cultural contexts. Generalisations to other institutions cannot be made. We discuss what was taught and how it was taught in our three settings, …


Music Activities Delivered By Primary School Generalist Teachers In Victoria: Informing Teaching Practice, Fiona King Jan 2018

Music Activities Delivered By Primary School Generalist Teachers In Victoria: Informing Teaching Practice, Fiona King

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

The purpose of this paper is to share teacher practice in the inclusion and delivery of music education experiences for children, to inform teacher education and to guide professional learning. It draws on a larger investigation into the music activities delivered by three primary school classroom (generalist) teachers in Victoria, Australia. There is a gap in the literature regarding the music activities and experiences facilitated by teachers in day-to-day classroom learning. The case study investigation inquired into the content, pedagogy, planning and the place of music activities provided to children aged six to eleven. Teacher education is addressed in this …


Building Critically Reflective Practice In Higher Education Students: Employing Auto-Ethnography And Educational Connoisseurship In Assessment, Jane Southcott, Renee Crawford Jan 2018

Building Critically Reflective Practice In Higher Education Students: Employing Auto-Ethnography And Educational Connoisseurship In Assessment, Jane Southcott, Renee Crawford

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

This study posed the question: Does using an educational connoisseurship framework applied to auto-ethnography assist in the development of reflective practice in teacher education? The design of authentic assessments that assist students in making meaningful links between theory and practice is a complex process. We created an assessment task that was directly linked to the lived experience of the students and specifically focused on their educational practice. Students were required to write an auto-ethnography that was shaped by educational connoisseurship and criticism. With ethical permission we retained the auto-ethnographic assignments by nineteen students. After independent thematic analysis we built a …


Competition Versus Cooperation: Implications For Music Teachers Following Students Feedback From Participation In A Large-Scale Cooperative Music Festival, Geoffrey M. Lowe Jan 2018

Competition Versus Cooperation: Implications For Music Teachers Following Students Feedback From Participation In A Large-Scale Cooperative Music Festival, Geoffrey M. Lowe

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Competition is reported in the general education literature as having a largely detrimental impact upon student engagement and long-term motivation, yet competition has long been an accepted part of the music education ensemble landscape. Adjudicated ensemble competitions and competition-festivals are commonplace in most Australian states, as opposed to large-scale cooperative events. Arguments advanced in support of competitive events revolve primarily around perceived extra-musical benefits framed from the director / conductor perspective. The student voice is rarely considered in assessments of the impact of participation. This study presents student feedback following participation in an alternative large-scale cooperative music ensemble festival. Students …


Teachers’ Perspectives About Implementing Ict In Music Education, Anne-Maree Eyles Jan 2018

Teachers’ Perspectives About Implementing Ict In Music Education, Anne-Maree Eyles

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

This article provides insights into the current state of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) implementation in music classrooms throughout Queensland, Australia, through the perspectives of classroom music teachers with regard to organisational practices that influence the implementation of ICT in music education. Using explanatory sequential mixed methods, a quantitative survey gathered music teachers’ perspectives regarding the availability of ICT resources, ICT support, teacher confidence, current teaching practices and professional development. Six qualitative semi-structured interviews were then conducted to investigate further the identified themes. This paper discusses the analysis of the quantitative survey results. Findings suggest that the F-10 Australian Curriculum …


Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Teaching Science In A New Zealand Intermediate School, Yvonne Ualesi, Gillian Ward Jan 2018

Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Teaching Science In A New Zealand Intermediate School, Yvonne Ualesi, Gillian Ward

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Concern has been raised globally that a lack of interest by teachers towards teaching science has a negative impact on the children they teach. While attention has been paid to the teacher as a contributing factor to students’ attitudes, less has been written about the attitudes of teachers. To bridge this gap, the current study examines six Year 8 teachers’ attitudes towards teaching science in a New Zealand intermediate school. Biographical data was gathered and individual semi-structured interviews were conducted that explored the teachers’ attitudes. van Aalderen-Smeets et al.’s (2012) framework, which takes a multidimensional view of attitudes, is used …


The Effects Of The School-Work Environment On Mathematics Teachers’ Motivation For Teaching: A Self-Determination Theoretical Perspective, Danya M. Corkin, Adem Ekmekci, Richard Parr Jan 2018

The Effects Of The School-Work Environment On Mathematics Teachers’ Motivation For Teaching: A Self-Determination Theoretical Perspective, Danya M. Corkin, Adem Ekmekci, Richard Parr

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Guided by self-determination theory, this study investigated the extent to which factors of teachers’ school-work environments predict their self-efficacy and intrinsic value for teaching. Participants were 217 mathematics teachers working in Texas public schools. Results indicated that principals’ autonomy support positively predicted teachers’ self-efficacy and intrinsic value for teaching beyond years of teaching experience, mathematics background, and grade level taught. Moreover, the negative effects of school-work environments dominated by high-stakes testing on teachers’ motivation for teaching were moderated by the level of autonomy support provided by the school principal.



Teachers’ Phonological Awareness Assessment Practices, Self-Reported Knowledge And Actual Knowledge: The Challenge Of Assessing What You May Know Less About, Karyn Carson, Anne Bayetto Jan 2018

Teachers’ Phonological Awareness Assessment Practices, Self-Reported Knowledge And Actual Knowledge: The Challenge Of Assessing What You May Know Less About, Karyn Carson, Anne Bayetto

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

This study investigates the relationship between early childhood (EC) and early years’ primary school (EYPS) teachers’ phonological awareness (PA) assessment practices, self-reported PA knowledge and actual PA knowledge. Method: A survey design was employed whereby 102 registered Australian EC and EYPS teachers responded to questions regarding PA assessment practices, self-reported PA knowledge and actual PA knowledge. Results: The results showed: a) more than 80% of teachers use PA assessments, with EYPS teachers conducting frequent assessments and EC teachers conducting rare-to-occasional assessments; b) over-estimation of self-reported PA knowledge; c) low levels of actual PA knowledge; and d) high usage of observations …


Strengthening Identities And Involvement Of Aboriginal Children Through Learning On Country., Elizabeth M. Jackson-Barrett, Libby Lee-Hammond Jan 2018

Strengthening Identities And Involvement Of Aboriginal Children Through Learning On Country., Elizabeth M. Jackson-Barrett, Libby Lee-Hammond

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Djarlgarra Koolunger (Canning River kids) is a culturally centred outdoor learning project referred to as ‘On Country Learning’ or OCL. The project explores Aboriginal connectedness to the spiritual, social, cultural, environmental and geographic dimensions of particular outdoor spaces. This allows Indigenous and non- Indigenous students and their educators to connect at what Nakata (2007) terms the ‘cultural interface’. OCL offers opportunities to transform the ways in which schools engage with Aboriginal perspectives whilst facilitating deep learning through what we describe as culturally responsive pedagogies. This paper stories the journey of Aboriginal students and their teachers, engaging in learning that is …


“I Sorta Felt Like I Was Out In The Middle Of The Ocean”: Novice Teachers’ Transition To The Classroom, Rebecca Miles, Sally Knipe Jan 2018

“I Sorta Felt Like I Was Out In The Middle Of The Ocean”: Novice Teachers’ Transition To The Classroom, Rebecca Miles, Sally Knipe

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

The design of initial teacher education courses is to provide pre-service teachers with skills, processes and knowledge about the practice and profession of teaching. This allows graduate teachers to best service the learning needs of future students. A disposition of inquiry in relation to ongoing teacher learning is a significant aspect of initial teacher education programs. The contribution that teacher education programs make in the transition from pre-service teachers to teacher challenges the experiences that occur during the teacher education program. The impetus for this study was to examine the graduate teacher’s transition to novice teaching and the impact of …


Primary Pre-Service Teachers' Attitudes Towards Inclusion Across The Training Years, Corrina Goddard, David Evans Jan 2018

Primary Pre-Service Teachers' Attitudes Towards Inclusion Across The Training Years, Corrina Goddard, David Evans

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Teachers are responsible for meeting the needs of increasingly diverse learners. Given their position as catalysts for educational change, teachers’ positive attitudes towards inclusive education must be considered prerequisite to its success in Australian classrooms. This study investigated the extent to which pre-service training affects pre-service primary teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education. A survey was designed to examine such attitudes among primary pre-service teachers at all year levels of their Bachelor of Education (Primary). To reflect the increasingly broad definition of inclusion established in the literature, participants’ attitudes towards gifted and talented students, those learning English as a second language …


Trainee Teachers’ Learning About Collective Worship In Primary Schools, Imran Mogra Jan 2018

Trainee Teachers’ Learning About Collective Worship In Primary Schools, Imran Mogra

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

This article gives an account of a qualitative research project which investigated acts of collective worship (hereafter CW) in primary schools through non-participant observations undertaken by second year trainee teachers during one of their placements. The data were gathered from a range of schools across the West Midlands. The findings illustrate structural elements which show a lack of uniformity in terms of the venue and time. Religious leaders, classroom assistants and staff at all levels of responsibility deliver assemblies and CW. The focus of the content is diverse and includes religious and ‘secular’ material and events. Trainees learnt about the …


Australian Teacher Education Policy In Action: The Case Of Pre-Service Internships., Susan Ledger, Lesley Vidovich Jan 2018

Australian Teacher Education Policy In Action: The Case Of Pre-Service Internships., Susan Ledger, Lesley Vidovich

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Studies on internships within initial teacher education have existed in literature since the early 1900s, they have espoused the benefits of experiential learning or critiqued the variance available in terms of structure, length of time and purpose. However, little research on teacher internships has been reported within a policy context. This study employs a modified ‘policy trajectory’ framework to capture the impact of teacher internship models emerging from policy reform in Australia driven by the National Partnership Agreement on Improving Teacher Quality Program (NPTQ). It highlights how policy contexts and practices are inextricably interconnected and influenced by key policy ‘threads’ …


Assessing Adolescent Reading Comprehension In A French Middle School: Performance And Beliefs About Knowledge, Pascal Dupont Jan 2018

Assessing Adolescent Reading Comprehension In A French Middle School: Performance And Beliefs About Knowledge, Pascal Dupont

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

In France, the growing percentage of students with reading problems calls for innovative teaching, particularly for students with serious learning difficulties. The present study was conducted on two classes with comparable reading levels: one standard sixth-grade class and one eighth-grade SEGPA class (those with learning difficulties). This study examined the effects of introducing a new teaching practice, didactique workstations, into the SEGPA class. The purpose of these workstations was to make the teaching content clearer and to promote formative assessment practices in order to improve adolescents’ reading comprehension and their relationship to knowledge. The results showed that introducing this innovative …


Cultural And Intercultural Education: Experiences Of Ethnoeducational Teachers In Colombia., Irma A. Flores H., Nancy Palacios Mena Jan 2018

Cultural And Intercultural Education: Experiences Of Ethnoeducational Teachers In Colombia., Irma A. Flores H., Nancy Palacios Mena

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

This article focuses on the analysis of the pedagogical component of ethno-educational experiences developed in different departments of Colombia. A qualitative methodology that integrated a systemic explanatory analysis model was chosen for this study together with a content analysis of these experiences from a systemic point of view, in order to consider those educational practices as the expression of interests, struggles, relationships and social dynamics. The text includes a fragment on the emergence of ethno-educational processes in Latin America and examines the conceptualization of the term, the objectives, the emphasis given in literature to political empowerment, the struggle for preserving …