Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®
- Discipline
-
- Teacher Education and Professional Development (66)
- Curriculum and Instruction (58)
- Higher Education (42)
- Educational Assessment, Evaluation, and Research (26)
- Educational Methods (25)
-
- Secondary Education (24)
- Educational Leadership (22)
- Other Teacher Education and Professional Development (22)
- Bilingual, Multilingual, and Multicultural Education (20)
- Science and Mathematics Education (20)
- Online and Distance Education (19)
- Social and Behavioral Sciences (19)
- Educational Administration and Supervision (17)
- Language and Literacy Education (17)
- Disability and Equity in Education (16)
- Special Education and Teaching (16)
- Elementary Education (15)
- Elementary Education and Teaching (15)
- Other Education (14)
- Educational Psychology (13)
- Educational Technology (13)
- Curriculum and Social Inquiry (12)
- Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (11)
- Secondary Education and Teaching (11)
- Adult and Continuing Education (9)
- Higher Education and Teaching (9)
- Psychology (9)
- Early Childhood Education (8)
- Instructional Media Design (6)
- Keyword
-
- RDS (17)
- Higher education (12)
- Equity (9)
- Professional development (9)
- Mentoring (7)
-
- Self-efficacy (7)
- Motivation (5)
- COVID-19 (4)
- Dissertation (4)
- Inclusive teaching (4)
- Mathematics (4)
- Reading (4)
- Universal Design for Learning (4)
- Book review (3)
- Coel_grant (3)
- Diversity (3)
- Education (3)
- Faculty (3)
- Inclusion (3)
- Middle school (3)
- Online education (3)
- STEM (3)
- School (3)
- Teacher beliefs (3)
- Teacher education (3)
- At-Risk (2)
- Case study (2)
- Cooperative Learning (2)
- Critical Thinking (2)
- Culturally relevant pedagogy (2)
Articles 61 - 90 of 208
Full-Text Articles in Education
Pandemic Issues: Faculty Value Alignment And Burnout, Eu Gene Chin, Brooke Hildebrand Clubbs
Pandemic Issues: Faculty Value Alignment And Burnout, Eu Gene Chin, Brooke Hildebrand Clubbs
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Burnout among faculty members impacts physical, cognitive, and emotional functioning and has negative socioeconomic consequences downstream. Prior to the pandemic, faculty members were already reporting high levels of burnout, which is characterized by depersonalization, emotional exhaustion, and a lack of personal accomplishment. Previous research reported that value incongruence functions as one of the strongest predictors of depersonalization (and subsequently) turnover intention. This study provides a snapshot of the value alignment and burnout of faculty at a regional public university in the months following the pandemic-induced pivot to remote learning. Results from our survey of faculty members (N = 58) suggest …
The Relationship Between Culturally Responsive Teacher Roles And Innovative Work Behavior: Canonical Correlation Analysis, Funda Nayir, Gurkan Saridas
The Relationship Between Culturally Responsive Teacher Roles And Innovative Work Behavior: Canonical Correlation Analysis, Funda Nayir, Gurkan Saridas
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
The aim of this research was to identify the relationship between culturally responsive teacher roles and innovative work behavior according to teachers’ views. The first phase of the analysis revealed that in the first canonical function, which is calculated to maximize the relationship between culturally responsive teacher roles and innovative work behavior data sets, culturally responsive teacher roles and innovative work behavior data sets share a variance of approximately 77%. In addition, as a result of the canonical correlation analysis, we determined that there is a positive relationship between the variables of the culturally regulating teacher (CRT) and the culturally …
The Effects Of An Undergraduate Research On Pre-Service Teachers’ Notions Of Stem Education And Educational Research, Erin Pearce, Jesse Brock, Phillis Bunch
The Effects Of An Undergraduate Research On Pre-Service Teachers’ Notions Of Stem Education And Educational Research, Erin Pearce, Jesse Brock, Phillis Bunch
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Pre-service teachers (PSTs) often lack the self-efficacy necessary to effectively implement STEM education into their classrooms. Undergraduate research experiences (URE) can help fill this void by providing opportunities for PSTs to engage with STEM content and K–12 students in a field-based research context. This case study details the impact a URE had on PSTs’ STEM self-efficacy and views on research. The URE consisted of STEM curriculum development, teaching the curriculum at a local middle school, gathering research data, and presenting results at academic conferences. Participation in the URE positively influenced the PSTs’ self-efficacy in STEM and changed their perceptions regarding …
The Effect Of Prediction-Observation-Explanation (Poe) Method On Learning Of Image Formation By A Plane Mirror And Pre-Service Teachers’ Opinions, Gonca Harman, Nisa Yenikalayci
The Effect Of Prediction-Observation-Explanation (Poe) Method On Learning Of Image Formation By A Plane Mirror And Pre-Service Teachers’ Opinions, Gonca Harman, Nisa Yenikalayci
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
In this research, we examined the effect of the prediction-observation-explanation (POE) method on learning of image formation by a plane mirror and pre-service teachers’ opinions. Twenty pre-service science teachers studying at first grade in the Department of Science Education in Turkey participated in the research. We used a one group pretest–posttest design. In the teaching process, carried out in accordance with the POE method, the pre-service teachers made their own plane mirror by using glass and mirror-effect spray paint, and then analyzed the image of a cube by using these mirrors. We analyzed the data by using the SPSS software …
Why Narrative Poetry Still Matters In Stylistics, Rachid Acim
Why Narrative Poetry Still Matters In Stylistics, Rachid Acim
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
In Morocco, debates over English language instruction have marginalized poetry as a distinct literary genre. The shortage of poetry events arguably makes poetry teaching both daunting and intimidating. Besides fostering trust, memorization, and empathy, helping students develop a penchant for English language, as well as humanity, poetry, and narrative poetry, in particular, proffers teachers ample opportunities to fully engage students in the learning process. Not only does it awaken their senses and make them establish connections but leads them to think in a critical way about the world around them. In this paper, the teaching of narrative poetry through the …
First-Year Experience Course Impact On Undergraduate International Student Retention And Graduation, Dylan Rust, Raghvendra Singh
First-Year Experience Course Impact On Undergraduate International Student Retention And Graduation, Dylan Rust, Raghvendra Singh
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
As institutions look to improve student retention through first-year experience (FYE) courses, some have implemented courses targeted specifically to the international population. A quantitative comparison of international students who took an FYE course with international students who did not take an FYE course was completed to analyze the differences in retention and graduation rates between the two groups. International freshmen who participated in the FYE course were retained and graduated at significantly higher rates than international freshmen who did not take the course. Aspects of the course that likely led to student retention and graduation are discussed.
Positive Leadership Theory For Online Dissertation Mentoring, Lee Stadtlander
Positive Leadership Theory For Online Dissertation Mentoring, Lee Stadtlander
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
A number of theoretical models have been suggested for how to mentor doctoral students. However, they tend to rely on hierarchical and authoritarian relationships between the faculty and students. Such models tend to create dependency and fear of the faculty, resulting in a reluctance in coming to the mentor for guidance. Such models do not tend to work well with online adult doctoral students with jobs and families. This paper proposes a model of positive leadership for online doctoral mentors, where mentors are accessible and create an environment where success is assumed and social support is provided by both the …
Differences In At-Risk Children's Preschool Assessment By Educators' Levels Of Education, Folashade Z. Olayinka-Bello, Donna Brackin
Differences In At-Risk Children's Preschool Assessment By Educators' Levels Of Education, Folashade Z. Olayinka-Bello, Donna Brackin
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
We determined that significant differences existed between assessment scores of at-risk children taught by assistant teachers with different levels of education using standardized assessments (Teaching Strategies GOLD [TSG] and Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening [PALS]). A 1-way MANOVA indicated that assistant teachers’ level of education was statistically significant at p = .012. Archived pretest and posttest data were collected from TSG and PALS assessment scores of 142 at-risk Prekindergarten 4 children taught by 18 different Prekindergarten 4 lead and assistant teachers at a local Head Start site. We found that irrespective of teachers’ levels of education, the role of assistant teachers …
A Culturally Responsive Literacy Approach To Develop Scientific Conceptual Knowledge Through Creative Narratives, Alma D. Stevenson, Lacey D. Huffling
A Culturally Responsive Literacy Approach To Develop Scientific Conceptual Knowledge Through Creative Narratives, Alma D. Stevenson, Lacey D. Huffling
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Our study examined the effects of culturally responsive literacy pedagogical approaches in the development of scientific vocabulary and conceptual knowledge among minoritized middle-grade students during a summer program. We describe the design and implementation of a literacy-enriched STEM instructional unit of study built upon the background experiences of Latina/Latino migrant farmworkers’ children to expand their STEM literacy skills and knowledge. Our aim with this unit was to increase the students’ science knowledge and skills; strengthen their mathematical abilities; enhance their ability to use technology for research; and improve their academic vocabulary, language, and writing skills. This program also had as …
The Pow+Tree Strategy’S Effects On The Argumentative Writing Of Struggling Secondary Students, Matthias Grünke
The Pow+Tree Strategy’S Effects On The Argumentative Writing Of Struggling Secondary Students, Matthias Grünke
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
The present study aims to evaluate the effects of an argumentative writing strategy (POW+TREE) on four struggling ninth graders’ ability to produce persuasive texts regarding their point of view on different questions. I applied a multiple-baseline design to evaluate outcomes across participants. The results indicate the intervention helped students to write more extensive essays, and evidence shows an increase in quality. Follow-up data suggest the effects remained after the treatment ended. I also discuss future research and the findings’ implications for practitioners.
The Paideia Program Is Worth Another Look, Jessica Richardi
The Paideia Program Is Worth Another Look, Jessica Richardi
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Educational opportunity is unequally distributed in the United States, most notably by race and economic status. Commonly practiced in K–12 schools across the country, tracking and ability grouping serve to exacerbate those existing inequities. Recent renewed activism for racial and economic justice, coupled with concerns over learning loss due to COVID-19 school closures, makes this an ideal time for educators to reconsider a formerly well-known and ambitious whole-school reform system called the Paideia Program. The system itself is described and a comprehensive review of research and literature follows. This review demonstrates Paideia’s potential to improve educational outcomes and thus help …
Teacher Instructional Practices And Student Mathematics Achievement, Michael C. Osborne
Teacher Instructional Practices And Student Mathematics Achievement, Michael C. Osborne
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Using the nationally representative sample from the United States in the 2012 Programme for International Student Assessment (N = 7,429 students from 240 schools), I examined the relationship between teacher instructional practices and student mathematics achievement. To account for the multilevel structure of the data with students nested within schools, I used a two-level hierarchical linear model in the data analysis. Teacher instructional practices showed statistically significant effects on student mathematics achievement, even after controlling for socioeconomic status (SES) and sex at the student level and school mean SES and whether the school is public or private at the …
How Transformational Leadership Can Help Native American Students, Kevin T. Caffrey
How Transformational Leadership Can Help Native American Students, Kevin T. Caffrey
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
In this paper, I examine the challenges that Native American students face in higher education and the role that education plays in their lives. I provide data on this topic spanning more than three decades through a literature review of three published articles. Through this literature review, I reveal key challenges that Native American students historically have faced and provide information on what factors play an important role in their success. Furthermore, I expose a research gap on the role that higher education administrators can play in addressing these challenges and inequities. I present strategies and recommendations on how to …
Examining Student Mentorship Experiences In An Online Doctoral Program, Kelly M. Torres, Lord Giddie, Aubrey Statti
Examining Student Mentorship Experiences In An Online Doctoral Program, Kelly M. Torres, Lord Giddie, Aubrey Statti
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
As more students elect to complete their doctoral studies online, faculty need to identify and implement mentorship approaches that are conducive to student understanding of the dissertation process. Faculty to mentee relationships are a prominent aspect of student retention and success in doctoral programs. Due to advances in technology, dissertation chairs have access to tools that allow for real-time feedback and support. Therefore, this study examined student dissertation and faculty mentorship experiences. Participants expressed satisfaction in their doctoral studies and dissertation process. However, students shared challenges associated with balancing multiple commitments, feeling lower levels of writing self-confidence, and understanding the …
Education Licensure Candidates During The Time Of Covid-19: University Supervisors’ Reflections About The Forgotten Few, Andrea M. Wilson, Cheryl Burleigh
Education Licensure Candidates During The Time Of Covid-19: University Supervisors’ Reflections About The Forgotten Few, Andrea M. Wilson, Cheryl Burleigh
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Education at K–12 through university levels has faced extraordinary upheaval in the time of COVID-19. As universities and K–12 school systems struggled independently to adapt to rapidly changing demands, teacher and administrator licensure candidates were confronted with unprecedented challenges in both worlds simultaneously. The licensure candidates were the forgotten few, stuck between higher education and K–12 education, while struggling to keep up with the demands of their personal lives and professional futures. With limited guidance from their universities and school systems, licensure candidates turned to their university field placement supervisors for direction. In response, supervisors became adaptive leaders and flexible …
Virtual Faculty Strategies For Supporting Motivation Of Online Doctoral Students, Crissie M. Jameson, Kelly Torres, Shereeza Mohammed
Virtual Faculty Strategies For Supporting Motivation Of Online Doctoral Students, Crissie M. Jameson, Kelly Torres, Shereeza Mohammed
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Our study focused on online faculty members and their perceptions of the strategies and activities they use to promote progress for and motivation in their online graduate students, particularly at the dissertation/doctoral study phase of the program. Results show high-achieving faculty members vary their strategies according to each students’ needs. High-achieving faculty members reach out to students often, offer encouragement throughout the process, and establish realistic goals.
An Evaluation Of Local Mentor Support In Ae E-Teacher Educational Technology Integration Online Teacher Training Course, Yasemin Yelbay Yilmaz, Seher Balbay
An Evaluation Of Local Mentor Support In Ae E-Teacher Educational Technology Integration Online Teacher Training Course, Yasemin Yelbay Yilmaz, Seher Balbay
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
This study addressed a different approach to online language teacher training programs. The researchers investigated the pros and cons of having local mentor support for an online course titled Using Technology in the English Language Classroom provided by the AE E-Teacher Program. The course was offered to preservice teachers from 24 different universities across Turkey. The study collected data through a pre- and post-online survey and individual semistructured interviews. The results revealed that while local mentoring as a supplement to the main course content contributed to teacher candidates’ emotional and professional attachment to their profession by helping them relate theory …
Expanding Stem Membership: Using Science Process Skills In A Social Justice Curriculum To Combat Stereotype Threats And Build Self-Efficacy In African American Students, Beverly A. King Miller, Alma D. Stevenson, Shelli L. Casler-Failing
Expanding Stem Membership: Using Science Process Skills In A Social Justice Curriculum To Combat Stereotype Threats And Build Self-Efficacy In African American Students, Beverly A. King Miller, Alma D. Stevenson, Shelli L. Casler-Failing
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Science process skills were scaffolded throughout instruction over the ten-week program. The culminating project included the development, design, and testing of their own independent science fair project. The results reflect an increase in students’ self-efficacy which was evidenced by the students’ preparation and presentation of their projects in the science fair.
Community As A Sustaining Force: Strategies For Online Scholarly Support, Bonnie Mullinix, Alison Binger, Michael Lees
Community As A Sustaining Force: Strategies For Online Scholarly Support, Bonnie Mullinix, Alison Binger, Michael Lees
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
This paper discusses the ways that community connections serve to sustain and support scholarly growth, retention, and success, particularly in longer-term online contexts. These strategies are seen through the reflective experience of a faculty mentor and two recent graduates who co-developed community support strategies that help doctoral students stay motivated, connected, and succeed over many years of what might otherwise be a long, individual, and lonely journey—particularly when undertaken online. A matrix of strategies, apps, and online tools emerged from this process and is offered for consideration.
Twenty-First Century Skill Building For Homeschooled Students With Special Needs, Jami M. Tipton
Twenty-First Century Skill Building For Homeschooled Students With Special Needs, Jami M. Tipton
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Although problem-based learning (PBL) is not new, the ways in which homeschool teachers use attributes of PBL with their students with special needs is unknown. Posts were collected from 20 homeschool teachers’ blogs. After I coded 87 blog posts, results showed that homeschool teachers provided a variety of opportunities for their students to practice 21st-century skills. Specifically, they developed lessons that encouraged students to share what they learned and developed cross-disciplinary content, most often with language arts. Results may provide insights for homeschool teachers interested in more purposefully implementing PBL experiences with the purpose of teaching 21st-century skills.
Higher Education's Contributions To The U.S. Democratic Society, Robert L. Williams, Charaya C. Upton
Higher Education's Contributions To The U.S. Democratic Society, Robert L. Williams, Charaya C. Upton
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
College experiences can contribute to teaching, learning, and instruction within higher education. The framework for this essay treats the college community as prototypic of the U.S. political society. Several aspects of the national political culture have been approximated within a collegiate culture. For example, every political problem within our society can be represented in a miniature fashion within a program of studies in a university. Much of students’ political information can come from the interaction between teachers and students. However, a sizable portion of this learned information can extend through interaction among students. At that point, teachers would point students …
Review Of The Book Merging The Instructional Design Process With Learner-Centered Theory—The Holistic 4d Model, By Charles M. Reigeluth And Yunjo An, Sunnie Lee Watson
Review Of The Book Merging The Instructional Design Process With Learner-Centered Theory—The Holistic 4d Model, By Charles M. Reigeluth And Yunjo An, Sunnie Lee Watson
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
No abstract provided.
Converging Andragogy With Working Adult Professionalism In Initial Teacher Preparation, Michelle Anderson, Stefani Boutelier
Converging Andragogy With Working Adult Professionalism In Initial Teacher Preparation, Michelle Anderson, Stefani Boutelier
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Educator Preparation Programs (EPPs) are tasked with providing preservice teachers with pedagogical theory, practical field experiences, mentorship, and scaffolded professional dispositions during critical phases of their preparation. In addition, EPPs collaborate with school districts and state departments of education to address critical issues in the field, including teacher retention and shortages. Our research explores how one EPP pilot, designed to build upon experience, supported working adult education students (e.g., parapros) seeking initial teacher certification. We sought to understand how adult teacher candidates engaged in professional learning and emergent professional relationships. Our qualitative study examined the experience of the first cohort …
Learning Model Based On Democratic Life, Şeyma Şahin, Abdurrahman Kılıç
Learning Model Based On Democratic Life, Şeyma Şahin, Abdurrahman Kılıç
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Our research aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the democracy and human rights course taught with a “Learning Model Based on Democratic Life.” The study was conducted with an action research design. The research study group, determined using purposeful sampling, consisted of 10 students taking a Democracy and Human Rights course at a state university in Turkey. Data were collected using “Process Evaluation Forms” and “Student Letters.” Content analysis was used in the analysis of the data. We concluded that the students thought the Learning Model Based on Democratic Life supported their participation, was efficient and interesting, contributed to the …
Instructional Supervision And The Covid-19 Pandemic: Perspectives From Principals, Jesse D. Brock, Don M. Beach, Mandy Musselwhite, Ikie Holder
Instructional Supervision And The Covid-19 Pandemic: Perspectives From Principals, Jesse D. Brock, Don M. Beach, Mandy Musselwhite, Ikie Holder
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Six questions that instructional supervisors have been faced with and had to respond to during the COVID-19 crisis include: (a) How do we support teachers in the transition from face-to-face to virtual classes and meetings; (b) How do we focus on addressing the needs of teachers while engaged in remote or online learning; (c) How do we maintain communication, contact, and relationships with teachers; (d) How do we celebrate successes as teachers work with students in the virtual world; (e) How do we assess the quality of the teaching–learning process; and (f) How do we plan for the next steps? …
Teachers’ Perceptions Of Teacher–Child Relationships, Student Behavior, And Classroom Management, Szu-Yu Chen, Natalya A. Lindo, Sarah Blalock, Dina Yousef, Latoya Smith, Kara Hurt-Avila
Teachers’ Perceptions Of Teacher–Child Relationships, Student Behavior, And Classroom Management, Szu-Yu Chen, Natalya A. Lindo, Sarah Blalock, Dina Yousef, Latoya Smith, Kara Hurt-Avila
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Children’s relationships with their teachers are a potential resource for enhancing developmental and academic outcomes. The effects of positive or negative teacher–child relationships can be either beneficial or detrimental to students’ academic progress, behaviors, and emotions. In the current study, we utilized a qualitative research design to examine 18 pre-kindergarten to fourth-grade teachers’ perceptions of teacher–child relationships, student behavior, and classroom management. Analysis of in-depth interviews yielded five major themes: (a) beliefs in children, (b) teaching strategies, (c) acknowledging individual differences, (d) challenges, and (e) relationships. Findings of this study have the potential to inform in-service training regarding relationship-building skills …
Elementary Content Teacher Perceptions Regarding Their Ell Instructional Practices, C. Wesley Owens, Steve P. Wells
Elementary Content Teacher Perceptions Regarding Their Ell Instructional Practices, C. Wesley Owens, Steve P. Wells
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to explore the instructional practices of elementary English language learner (ELL) teachers and how those practices are perceived by the teachers to be aligned with improved ELL academic performance. The study is grounded in Ladson-Billings’ theory of culturally relevant pedagogy, which holds that student academic achievement and cultural identity should be affirmed. The research questions focused on exploring instructional practices used by teachers to support ELL learning and the teachers’ perceptions of how their practices are aligned with improved ELL academic performance. The qualitative descriptive study was limited to three elementary schools …
Inter-Relationships Among Several Person-Related Attributes In Reading And Metacomprehension: Complexity And Educational Implications, Lin-Miao L. Agler, Larisa K. Alfsen
Inter-Relationships Among Several Person-Related Attributes In Reading And Metacomprehension: Complexity And Educational Implications, Lin-Miao L. Agler, Larisa K. Alfsen
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Reading is one of the most basic academic skills. An accurate monitor of one’s text comprehension (i.e., metacomprehension) is essential for effective reading as it guides learning and choices of appropriate strategy used to maximize overall understanding. The processes of reading comprehension and metacomprehension are affected by text-related, task-related, and reader- /person-related factors. One of the two purposes of this report is to provide a brief review of consistent research findings on the interrelationships among several person-related variables and the complexity of those associations in reading and metacomprehension. The person variables discussed include personality, motivation, goal orientations, self-regulation, reading strategy …
Implementing Inclusive Education In Early Childhood Settings: The Interplay And Impact Of Exclusion, Teacher Qualities And Professional Development In Ghana, Francis R. Ackah-Jnr, Hyacinth Udah
Implementing Inclusive Education In Early Childhood Settings: The Interplay And Impact Of Exclusion, Teacher Qualities And Professional Development In Ghana, Francis R. Ackah-Jnr, Hyacinth Udah
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Inclusive education (IE) in the early years enhances young children’s learning, socialization, and development; yet, children with disability are one group that is often isolated, excluded, or marginalized in early childhood education. This paper examines jointly the perceived exclusion practices, teacher qualities, and professional development and the interplay and impact of these factors on effective inclusive early childhood education. Drawing on data collected from individual interviews with teachers and headteachers in a large early childhood and school setting in Ghana, findings of this qualitative study indicate the exclusion practices of teachers. The findings suggest that resistance to IE limits learning, …
Review Of Schooling Of Learners With Disabilities And The Manifestation Of The Hidden Curriculum Of Time, Theodoto Ressa
Review Of Schooling Of Learners With Disabilities And The Manifestation Of The Hidden Curriculum Of Time, Theodoto Ressa
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Postsecondary outcomes remain difficult to attain despite their significance to learners with disabilities. This qualitative study investigated the impact of a hidden curriculum of time on the education of five undergraduate students with disabilities at a Carnegie Research One institution in the midwestern U.S. Participants in their quest for an education experienced a hidden curriculum of time in the form of physical impairments, educational costs of ill-health, and disability discrimination. The academic barriers participants encountered in reaching their educational goals suggest that addressing the hidden curriculum of time is essential for authentic inclusion and achievement of postsecondary education outcomes.