Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®

Digital Commons Network

Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®

Articles 1 - 30 of 194

Full-Text Articles in Entire DC Network

Behavioral Patterns Of Goldfish (Carassius Auratus) Exploring A “Fish Tower”, Sasha Prasad-Shreckengast Dec 2021

Behavioral Patterns Of Goldfish (Carassius Auratus) Exploring A “Fish Tower”, Sasha Prasad-Shreckengast

Theses and Dissertations

Fish are held in captivity at some of the highest numbers of any taxa, but their curiosity is rarely studied. With this study, we set the groundwork to investigate the presence and nature of curiosity in goldfish (Carassius auratus) via novel free-choice exploration opportunities by creating a “fish tower."


Pushing It To The Limit: Determining Asian Elephant (Elephas Maximus) Olfactory Sensitivity And Discrimination Through A Behavioral Choice Task, Matthew S. Rudolph Dec 2021

Pushing It To The Limit: Determining Asian Elephant (Elephas Maximus) Olfactory Sensitivity And Discrimination Through A Behavioral Choice Task, Matthew S. Rudolph

Theses and Dissertations

Elephants have shown remarkable olfactory capabilities. Their sense of smell impacts their foraging choices, behavior, and ultimately, survival. Being able to detect a target odor can allow elephants to locate specific resources, identify threats, and find receptive conspecifics. Previous studies have shown that elephants can consistently detect target odors, but have not identified the limits of this detection. Thus, to investigate the extent of elephants’ odor detection capabilities, we tested Asian elephants in a two-step odor discrimination task. First, we investigated whether elephants could detect odors at varying levels of dilution after a training procedure, and then whether they could …


The Influence Of Comorbid Gad On Er Utilization In Urban Youth With Asthma, David A. Karpe Dec 2021

The Influence Of Comorbid Gad On Er Utilization In Urban Youth With Asthma, David A. Karpe

Theses and Dissertations

Current literature indicates a strong association between asthma and the early onset of comorbid generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) in minors and their primary caregivers. Studies show that asthma prevalence increases with certain demographic factors, such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and housing quality. Evidence also suggests that GAD influences decision-making, especially when deciding to utilize emergency room (ER) services for asthma-related concerns. This study analyzed the effect of comorbid GAD on minors with asthma and ER utilization. The data were provided by an earlier Stress & Justice Study (S&J) baseline survey, an investigation aimed at understanding the impact of parental criminal …


Using Bst To Increase Interview Skills Among Emerging Adults With Autism Via Telehealth, Johnna L. Dowdy Dec 2021

Using Bst To Increase Interview Skills Among Emerging Adults With Autism Via Telehealth, Johnna L. Dowdy

Theses and Dissertations

he purpose of the current study was to evaluate the use of behavior skills training via telehealth to teach job interview skills to emerging adults with ASD. Additionally, the study examined if following intervention, skills were able to generalize to new interviewers. 2 undergraduate and 1 graduate student with ASD participated in the study, and received intervention for 3 behaviors: (1) appropriately answering questions, (2) asking appropriate questions, and (3) engaging in appropriate body language. The current study used a multiple baseline design across behaviors. Results from the study indicated BST via telehealth was effective in teaching job interviews skills. …


Discrete Processing In Visual Perception, Marshall L. Green Dec 2021

Discrete Processing In Visual Perception, Marshall L. Green

Theses and Dissertations

Two very different classes of theoretical models have been proposed to explain visual perception. One class of models assume that there is a point at which we become consciously aware of a stimulus, known as a threshold. This threshold is the foundation of discrete process models all of which describe an all-or-none transition between the mental state of perceiving a stimulus and the state of not perceiving a stimulus. In contrast, the other class of models assume that mental states change continuously. These continuous models are founded in signal detection theory and the more contemporary models in Bayesian inference frameworks. …


Examining Negative Thinking Styles And Thought Control Strategies Within Borderline Personality Disorder, Courtney K. Mason Dec 2021

Examining Negative Thinking Styles And Thought Control Strategies Within Borderline Personality Disorder, Courtney K. Mason

Theses and Dissertations

Components of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) include emotion and cognitive dysregulation. The Emotional Cascade Model (Selby & Joiner, 2009; Selby et al., 2009) suggests negative affect and the cognitive process of rumination could be interchangeably increasing over time, leading to maladaptive behaviors. The current study evaluated negative thinking styles (i.e., anger rumination, sadness rumination, worry, catastrophizing) and thought control strategies (i.e., brooding, reflection, thought suppression) in relation to BPD traits using path analyses in a college student sample (N = 204). Results indicated anger rumination, sadness rumination, and worry indirectly predicted BPD traits through thought suppression, brooding, and reflection. However, …


The Relationship Between Mindfulness, Social Anxiety Traits, And Emotions, Maria Jackeline Diaz Dec 2021

The Relationship Between Mindfulness, Social Anxiety Traits, And Emotions, Maria Jackeline Diaz

Theses and Dissertations

The relationship between mindfulness, social anxiety traits, and emotion processing is the first study of its kind to be looked over. In this study we will assess similarities and differences, plus how they work together to provide further research and understanding of these complexities when combined. Such research can be helpful in making us understand our emotions, as well as how our emotions can be perceived in social functioning and communication.


Shared Leadership Emergence: The Role Of Leader Identity And Leadership Structure Schema, Erica Medrano Dec 2021

Shared Leadership Emergence: The Role Of Leader Identity And Leadership Structure Schema, Erica Medrano

Theses and Dissertations

The increasing popularity of self-managing teams has sparked interest in the impact of shared leadership structures on team outcomes. Yet, it is unclear how shared leadership structures form or why they vary across teams. While research suggests that leadership claiming and granting are essential to the social construction of shared leadership in teams, the latter has received little attention. Therefore, this study aimed to address the fundamental questions “what factors determine who is granted leadership by individuals in a team?” and “what factors determine how many others are granted leadership by individuals in a team?” I proposed that leader identity …


Brevity Vs. Breadth: Can Memory Disorders Be Diagnosed Using Fewer Neuropsychological Assessments?, Analise Roccaforte Dec 2021

Brevity Vs. Breadth: Can Memory Disorders Be Diagnosed Using Fewer Neuropsychological Assessments?, Analise Roccaforte

Theses and Dissertations

Object: The present study examines the clinical utility of combining a cognitive screener, Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), with a measure of adaptive functioning, Texas Functional Living Scale (TFLS), to diagnose memory disorders when differentiating between cognition within normal limits (WNL), mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Method: A total of 207 Health First Memory Disorder Clinic patients, ages 64-94, were included in the study. Participants were screened using the MoCA and then they completed a brief neuropsychological evaluation, which included the TFLS. Participants were only included if they received a diagnosis of cognition WNL, MCI, or AD. They …


Effect Of Neighborhood Socioeconomic Disadvantage On Brain Functional Connectivity And Structural Properties In Trauma-Exposed Adults, Elisabeth Kathleen Webb Dec 2021

Effect Of Neighborhood Socioeconomic Disadvantage On Brain Functional Connectivity And Structural Properties In Trauma-Exposed Adults, Elisabeth Kathleen Webb

Theses and Dissertations

Though there has been substantial progress towards understanding brain-behavior relationships and characterizing the neurobiology of psychiatric disorders, research has not translated as expected into novel prevention and treatment of mental health conditions. One limitation may be the emphasis on individual-level variables (e.g., income) and omission of relevant area-level factors (e.g., neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage). Recently, attention has been directed towards identifying the biological mechanisms by which neighborhoods impact mental health. The chronic stress associated with living in a disadvantaged neighborhood promotes a cascade of maladaptive events, which in turn impact brain structure and functioning. The processes affected by chronic neighborhood stressors …


Better Safe Than Sorry? Examining The Effectiveness Of Defensive Impression Management And Supplication Techniques In Attracting Minority Applicants To Public Safety Careers, Temitayo Opeyemi Lawal Dec 2021

Better Safe Than Sorry? Examining The Effectiveness Of Defensive Impression Management And Supplication Techniques In Attracting Minority Applicants To Public Safety Careers, Temitayo Opeyemi Lawal

Theses and Dissertations

The recent media coverage of fatal interactions between police officers and unarmed Black citizens has led to increased calls for law enforcement agencies to diversify their departments. However, many agencies struggle to attract qualified minority candidates due to the negative history between law enforcement and minority communities. This study examined whether the use targeted defensive impression management techniques, such as apologizing for past transgressions, and supplicative recruiting messages can influence attraction and job pursuit intentions for minority applicants. This study also explored whether applicant perceptions of an organization’s sincerity and value of diversity mediates the relationship between diversity recruiting messages …


Teacher Choice-Allocation Of Delayed Treatment Outcomes Based On Severity Of Student Problem Behavior, Natalia Victoria Colón Dec 2021

Teacher Choice-Allocation Of Delayed Treatment Outcomes Based On Severity Of Student Problem Behavior, Natalia Victoria Colón

Theses and Dissertations

Delay discounting is the systematic preference for smaller, sooner rewards over larger, later rewards, particularly as the delay to the larger, later reward is increased. It is used to explain impulsivity. Monetary rewards have been most frequently studied; however, impulsivity has also been represented with behavioral treatment outcomes for maladaptive behavior where a caregiver is responsible for its implementation (Call et al., 2015; Scheithauer et al., 2020). Maladaptive behavior is a common concern among families with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Long-term improvements are not uncommon in behavior analysis. It may be detrimental to client gains if caregivers discount longer acting …


Perceptions Of Naloxone Training And Administration Among Law Enforcement Officers, Katelyn Rae Goodall Dec 2021

Perceptions Of Naloxone Training And Administration Among Law Enforcement Officers, Katelyn Rae Goodall

Theses and Dissertations

The opioid epidemic was officially declared a public health emergency in 2017 when the rate of deaths per day from opioid overdoses was steadily increasing (CMS, n.d.). As of 2019 – 2020, 61,297 of the 83,544 reported drug overdose deaths were attributed to opioids in general, with 48,729 accounted for by synthetic opioids (CDC, 2021). Due to the significant impact on public health and safety, law enforcement departments have been tasked with developing and implementing naloxone policies and trainings. Law enforcement officers are often the first on the scene of an overdose outnumber fire rescue and emergency medical responders across …


Utilizing The Radsm Process: Developing An Unobtrusive Measure Of Cohesion, Zachary Lee Rahner Dec 2021

Utilizing The Radsm Process: Developing An Unobtrusive Measure Of Cohesion, Zachary Lee Rahner

Theses and Dissertations

In this study, verbal indicators produced following the RADSM process were used to code transcript data collected from 62 three-person teams playing a cooperative bridge crew simulator. A training dataset, consisting of 88 mission transcripts, and a testing dataset, consisting of 39 mission transcripts, were created from the data. Multilevel modeling was employed to develop a linear-regression algorithm to predict/measure team task and social cohesion. The findings revealed that task cohesion perceptions are linked to the proportion of speech dedicated to information requests and instructions, whereas social cohesion perceptions are associated with the proportion of speech dedicated to amusing and …


Beyond Resource Depletion: An Examination Of Sleepiness, Self-Regulation, And Goal Progress, Kauyer Lor Dec 2021

Beyond Resource Depletion: An Examination Of Sleepiness, Self-Regulation, And Goal Progress, Kauyer Lor

Theses and Dissertations

Research on employee sleepiness and self-regulation has primarily adopted a resource depletion perspective. However, other theoretical frameworks suggest additional processes may be involved. The current study explored this idea by examining the relationship between sleepiness, self-regulation, and goal progress within an integrative self-control theoretical framework (Kotabe & Hofmann, 2015). This study included a sample of 127 employees recruited from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk and a snowball method through social media. Participants completed seven signal surveys within a single workday assessing sleepiness, desire, higher-order goal, control capacity, control motivation, self-control enactment, desire enactment, and goal progress. Results from multilevel modeling indicated that …


Development Of A Correction For Defensiveness In The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Second Edition-Restructured Form (Mmpi-2-Rf) Profiles Of Adult Male Sex Offenders, Katie Marie Glauner Oct 2021

Development Of A Correction For Defensiveness In The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Second Edition-Restructured Form (Mmpi-2-Rf) Profiles Of Adult Male Sex Offenders, Katie Marie Glauner

Theses and Dissertations

Clinical and forensic psychologists often evaluate sex offenders to determine the level of risk they pose to the community and identify their treatment needs to reduce the risk of future recidivism. Personality assessments are administered in sex offender evaluations to aid in answering these referral questions, while also providing information regarding the evaluees’ response style to the test and descriptions of their personality functioning. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and its revisions have been the most widely used personality assessments in sex offender evaluations, with previous research demonstrating that sex offenders often respond defensively to the test by minimizing …


Development And Evaluation Of An Object Relations Measure For The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank, John Thomas Rucker Iii Oct 2021

Development And Evaluation Of An Object Relations Measure For The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank, John Thomas Rucker Iii

Theses and Dissertations

Personality assessment measures provide useful insight into the characteristic dispositions and psychological makeup of clinical populations and are routinely utilized by mental health professionals to guide treatment and case conceptualizations. Most widely used psychological measures include indicators of interpersonal functioning. Personality presentations with dysfunctional interpersonal styles may include underlying maladaptive object relations, which serve as the mental templates for social interchange and interpersonal dynamics. The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is the most widely used sentence completion method and is often included in personality assessment batteries in evaluating an examinee’s level of adjustment and/or maladjustment. This study sought to develop …


Vaping, Smoking, Dual Use, And Stealth Vaping/Smoking Among First Responders: Law Enforcement, Firefighters, And Paramedics/Emergency Medical Technicians (Emt), Shifra Leah Gross Oct 2021

Vaping, Smoking, Dual Use, And Stealth Vaping/Smoking Among First Responders: Law Enforcement, Firefighters, And Paramedics/Emergency Medical Technicians (Emt), Shifra Leah Gross

Theses and Dissertations

First Responders to emergencies, such as those within the fields of law enforcement, firefighting, and/or emergency medical services, have a higher use of Electronic Nicotine Delivery System (ENDS)than the population in general due to the intense job-related stressors they often encounter as part of their work and the well documented relationship between stress and use of these products. The purpose of this study was to determine the rate of First Responders who utilize ENDS and engage in stealth vaping, and the association between these behaviors and self-perceived level of job stress, health risk perceptions, and other factors. A total of …


Assessing Longitudinal Impacts Of Mentor Role On Student Outcomes, Jody Lanza-Gregory Oct 2021

Assessing Longitudinal Impacts Of Mentor Role On Student Outcomes, Jody Lanza-Gregory

Theses and Dissertations

Most youth form relationships with extra-familial adults, sometimes called natural mentoring relationships, and these connections appear to benefit youth in several ways. Previous research demonstrates that the presence of a mentor can positively impact student outcomes including educational expectation, educational attainment, and social success. However, little research has considered how the impact of a natural mentorship may differ based upon the role of the adult in the youth’s life. Using data from three waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this study investigates if the role of a mentor (i.e. teacher, coach, religious leader) influences the types of …


The Impact Of The Teacher-Student Relationship On Students’ Educational Expectations, Amanda Lynn Davis Oct 2021

The Impact Of The Teacher-Student Relationship On Students’ Educational Expectations, Amanda Lynn Davis

Theses and Dissertations

Students benefit both academically and psychosocially from close, supportive relationships with their teachers. Students who have close relationships with their teachers tend to adjust better to school, perform better academically, and engage in fewer problem behaviors. These benefits begin as early as preschool and mitigate several barriers to educational success for students from low-resource environments. However, it is unclear how changes in these relationships over time differentially influence positive outcomes. In this study, I test how changes in relationship closeness between students and teachers influence students’ expectations about future educational achievement. I also test how the strength of this association …


Composition, Context, And Community Integration: Evaluating The Relative Strength Of Environmental Factors On Mental Health Outcomes Using A Social Ecology Model, Douglas John Archie Iii Oct 2021

Composition, Context, And Community Integration: Evaluating The Relative Strength Of Environmental Factors On Mental Health Outcomes Using A Social Ecology Model, Douglas John Archie Iii

Theses and Dissertations

The relationship between environmental factors and individual health outcomes has historically been a major area of interest for multiple scientific disciplines. However, the specific environmental factors relevant for describing this relationship and effective measuring methods are unclear. One approach that may assist in addressing these issues is by analyzing this relationship using a comprehensive theoretical framework. This study used a social-ecological model first proposed by Moos and colleagues (Insel & Moos, 1974: Moos & Moos, 1976) to investigate connections between environmental factors and mental health recovery outcomes of psychiatric distress, management of mental health symptoms, and recovery-oriented behavior. A series …


Operationalizing And Measuring High-Quality Instructional Practice – A Theoretical And Empirical Perspective, Genine L. Blue Oct 2021

Operationalizing And Measuring High-Quality Instructional Practice – A Theoretical And Empirical Perspective, Genine L. Blue

Theses and Dissertations

This multiple manuscript dissertation offers a cohesive set of research studies curated to address three topics related to how high-quality instructional practice (HQIP) is defined, measured and ultimately connected to student engagement and achievement. Grounded in Benson’s (1998) framework of construct validation, this line of inquiry outlines (i) a well-articulated theoretical domain to make clear the substantive nature of HQIP as a multidimensional latent construct (e.g., substantive stage); (ii) the initial phases of an ongoing, iterative process consisting of empirical analyses designed to continuously build understanding around the structural nature of the observed variables selected to define construct’s empirical domain …


Social-Motivational Influences On Physical Activity Engagement For Adolescent Girls, Mariajosé Jhamira Paton Oct 2021

Social-Motivational Influences On Physical Activity Engagement For Adolescent Girls, Mariajosé Jhamira Paton

Theses and Dissertations

Rates of youth physical activity (PA) drastically decrease during adolescence, with a steeper decline for adolescent girls (Belcher et al., 2010; CDC, 2010). Although afterschool programs (ASPs) have been identified as an ideal context for promoting youth PA, ASPs vary in quality with girls having the highest rates of inactivity (Zarrett et al., 2018). Theory and previous studies have identified social-motivational climate-based factors within ASPs that are critical for promoting adolescents’ PA (Basch, 2011; Eccles et al., 2002; Zarrett et al., 2013, 2015). The present study first examines gender differences in the social-motivational quality of middle school ASPs for promoting …


Factors Influencing Latina Healthcare System Distrust, Anthony D. Eldridge Sep 2021

Factors Influencing Latina Healthcare System Distrust, Anthony D. Eldridge

Theses and Dissertations

The Latino community's healthcare engagement continues to be a growing national concern (Velasco-Mondragon et al., 2016). Due to sociocultural circumstances and racial marginalization, Latinas experience disproportionate health disparities and inequalities that may be exacerbated by healthcare system distrust (HSD) (Hacker et al., 2015). Ethnic identity, an established protective factor in Latino culture, may contribute to healthcare system distrust (Ai et al., 2012). Additionally, immigration status has been shown to negatively influence Latino's healthcare experiences leading to HSD (Luque et al., 2018). The present study evaluated the influence of sociodemographic factors and ethnic identity on HSD among Latinas. Ethnic identity and …


Does Decentering Mediate The Relationship Between Mindfulness And Stress And Anxiety?, Hana Hannah Lee Sep 2021

Does Decentering Mediate The Relationship Between Mindfulness And Stress And Anxiety?, Hana Hannah Lee

Theses and Dissertations

College students are stressed and unsuccessful efforts to cope can increase risk for poor mental health, including anxiety (American College Health, 2019). Research suggests mindfulness (Bamber & Schneider, 2016) and adaptive emotion regulation (Desrosiers et al. 2013b) can buffer against the deleterious effects of distress. Decentering, a mindful emotion regulation strategy (Chambers et al., 2009), is postulated to be a mechanism by which mindfulness can lead to better mental health (Shapiro et al. 2006). Specific facets of trait mindfulness, namely Nonjudging (NJ) and Nonreactivity (NR) (Mizera et al. 2016), are directly involved in regulating one's emotions, which can help reduce …


Differentiating Risk Pathways To Violence: A Comparison Of The Incremental Contributions Of Masculine Gender Discrepancy Stress And Trait Agreeableness, John M. Shepherd Sep 2021

Differentiating Risk Pathways To Violence: A Comparison Of The Incremental Contributions Of Masculine Gender Discrepancy Stress And Trait Agreeableness, John M. Shepherd

Theses and Dissertations

The existing literature on risk profiles leading to the perpetration of violent acts has suggested personality and gender role socializations to be relevant predictors. Research has consistently found personality factors, particularly trait agreeableness, to predict several types of violence (e.g., sexual violence, violence against intimate partners, aggressive behaviors across relationships). Recent research suggests that although both adherence to masculine social norms and individual differences in experiences of stress while enacting these norms have been shown to be reliably associated with violence, masculine gender discrepancy stress (i.e., stress experienced by men when perceiving themselves to be inadequately masculine) may be uniquely …


Medication Assisted Treatment: Examining Enrollment And Demographic Factors Of Treatment, Antwana Letoya Drayton Sep 2021

Medication Assisted Treatment: Examining Enrollment And Demographic Factors Of Treatment, Antwana Letoya Drayton

Theses and Dissertations

Opioid Use Disorder (OUD) has been a long-standing epidemic concern related to the continuous growth of variations of the substance and its’ potency. Due to the versatility of the substance to be both an illicit drug and also a prescription medication, the interest in controlling and monitoring its’ use creates a greater public health concern. Treatment overtime has been revitalized to directly address the social, biological, and physiological difficulties of patients with OUDs. Medication Assisted Treatment (MAT) has been explored and has become one of the most widely used plans for treatment of Substance Use Disorders (SUDs) related to pain …


Adaptability As A Moderator On The Impact Of Childhood Sexual Abuse And The Development Of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms, Courtney Marie Kalmanson Sep 2021

Adaptability As A Moderator On The Impact Of Childhood Sexual Abuse And The Development Of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms, Courtney Marie Kalmanson

Theses and Dissertations

Globally, it is estimated that 11.8% children experience Childhood Sexual Abuse (CSA) prior to the age of 18 (Stoltenborgh et al., 2011). However, the current prevalence rate of CSA is far underestimated due to the fear, shame, and denial that the victim experiences. Similarly, many survivors of CSA experience post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) following the experience of CSA, which may develop into post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) over time. Furthermore, some children may adjust well despite the traumatic experience, suggesting resiliency. Much of the research on CSA focuses on the link between CSA and development of psychopathology, including but not limited …


The Mediating Role Of Interpersonal Skills In The Relationship Between Depressive Symptomatology And Dating Violence In Young Mothers, Lauren Catherine Wallace Aug 2021

The Mediating Role Of Interpersonal Skills In The Relationship Between Depressive Symptomatology And Dating Violence In Young Mothers, Lauren Catherine Wallace

Theses and Dissertations

Young mothers are an understudied group at high-risk for dating violence (DV) victimization and perpetration. Psychological distress, such as depression, increases young mothers' risk for DV (Thomas et al., 2019). In turn, depressive symptomology is associated with difficulties in interpersonal competence (Jones et al., 2019), which may increase DV risk (Bonache et al., 2017). In addition, young mothers may have few chances to learn the interpersonal skills associated with healthy adult romantic relationships due to a mismatch in developmental level and parenting status (Herrman et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2007). Using interpersonal stress generation theory (Hammen, 1991, 2006), we …


Personal And/Or Vicarious Experience With Cancer As A Predictor Of Physical Activity: Moderating Effects Of Gender And Risk Perception, Pierre Alexander Leon M.A. Aug 2021

Personal And/Or Vicarious Experience With Cancer As A Predictor Of Physical Activity: Moderating Effects Of Gender And Risk Perception, Pierre Alexander Leon M.A.

Theses and Dissertations

Background: Few studies have addressed the relationship between an individual's type of experience with cancer and its relationship with physical activity (PA). Furthermore, studies have not addressed gender and risk perception's ability to moderate the relationship between cancer experience and physical activity. To address this gap in understanding modifiable factors that might help or hinder PA levels, the overarching goal of this study is to: (a) estimate the degree to which an individual's experience of cancer effects PA levels, (b) determine how strongly gender moderates the relationship between the experience of cancer and PA levels, and (c) determine how strongly …