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Articles 1 - 26 of 26
Full-Text Articles in Social Psychology
Looks And Status Are Still Essential: Testing The Mate Preference Priority Model With The Profile-Based Experimental Paradigm, Jose C. Yong, Yi Wen Tan, Norman P. Li, Andrea L. Meltzer
Looks And Status Are Still Essential: Testing The Mate Preference Priority Model With The Profile-Based Experimental Paradigm, Jose C. Yong, Yi Wen Tan, Norman P. Li, Andrea L. Meltzer
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Objective: Although the mate preference priority model (MPPM; Li et al., 2002) has advanced our understanding of mate preferences, tests of the MPPM have relied on methods using text labels and thus lack ecological validity. We address this gap by testing the MPPM using Townsend and colleagues’ (1990a; 1990b; 1993) profile-based experimental paradigm, which utilizes profiles comprising photos of pre-rated models to manipulate physical attractiveness as well as costumes and descriptions to manipulate social status.Method: Using Singaporean samples, we conducted two studies (Study 1 n = 431, Study 2 n = 964) where participants judged the short-term and long-term mating …
Important To Me And My Society: How Culture Influences The Roles Of Personal Values And Perceived Group Values In Environmental Engagements Via Collectivistic Orientation, Tengjiao Huang, Angela K. Y. Leung, Kimin Eom, Kam Pong Tam
Important To Me And My Society: How Culture Influences The Roles Of Personal Values And Perceived Group Values In Environmental Engagements Via Collectivistic Orientation, Tengjiao Huang, Angela K. Y. Leung, Kimin Eom, Kam Pong Tam
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Despite extensive works examining the influence of personal values on environmental engagements, scarce research has examined the influence of group values that are perceived as important in the society. To address this lacuna and recent calls for more cross-cultural environmental research, we investigated whether and how culture, via collectivistic orientation, influences the roles of personal values and perceived group values, namely egoistic and biospheric values, in motivating environmental engagements in a Western (the U.S.; N = 469) and an Asian (Singapore; N = 410) country. To highlight a few findings, the study showed that personal values and perceived group values …
Perceived Cultural Impacts Of Climate Change Motivate Climate Action And Support For Climate Policy, Kim-Pong Tam, Angela K. Y. Leung, Brandon Koh
Perceived Cultural Impacts Of Climate Change Motivate Climate Action And Support For Climate Policy, Kim-Pong Tam, Angela K. Y. Leung, Brandon Koh
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The impacts of climate change on human cultures have received increasing attention in recent years. However, the extent to which people are aware of these impacts, whether such awareness motivates climate action, and what kinds of people show stronger awareness are rarely understood. The present investigation provides the very first set of answers to these questions. In two studies (with a student sample with N = 199 from Singapore and a demographically representative sample with N = 625 from the USA), we observed a generally high level of awareness among our participants. Most importantly, perceived cultural impacts of climate change …
Loosening The Definition Of Culture: An Investigation Of Gender And Cultural Tightness, Alexandra S. Wormley, Matthew Scott, Kevin Grimm, Norman P. Li, Bryan K. C. Choy, Adam B. Cohen
Loosening The Definition Of Culture: An Investigation Of Gender And Cultural Tightness, Alexandra S. Wormley, Matthew Scott, Kevin Grimm, Norman P. Li, Bryan K. C. Choy, Adam B. Cohen
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
To date, the study of cultural tightness has been largely limited to exploring the strictness of social norms and the severity of punishments at the level of nations or regions. However, cultural psychologists concur that humans gather cultural information from more than just their nationality. Gender is a cultural identity that confers its own social norms. Across three studies using multi-method designs, we find that American women feel the culture surrounding their gender is “tighter” than that for men, and that this relationship is mediated by perceived gender-related threats to the self. However, in a follow-up study in Singapore, we …
Religion, Social Connectedness, And Xenophobic Responses To Ebola, Roxie Chuang, Kimin Eom, Heejung S. Kim
Religion, Social Connectedness, And Xenophobic Responses To Ebola, Roxie Chuang, Kimin Eom, Heejung S. Kim
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
This study examined the role of religion in xenophobic responses to the threat of Ebola. Religious communities often offer members strong social ties and social support, which may help members cope with psychological and physical threat, including global threats like Ebola. Our analysis of a nationally representative sample in the U.S. (N = 1,000) found that overall, the more vulnerable to Ebola people felt, the more they exhibited xenophobic responses, but this relationship was moderated by importance of religion. Those who perceived religion as more important in their lives exhibited weaker xenophobic reactions than those who perceived religion as less …
A Creative Destruction Approach To Replication: Implicit Work And Sex Morality Across Cultures, Warren Tierney, Jay H. Iii. Hardy, Charles R. Ebersole, D. Viganola, E. G. Clemente, Christilene Du Plessis, Andree Hartanto, Nilotpal Jha, Theodore Charles Masters-Waage, Michael Schaerer
A Creative Destruction Approach To Replication: Implicit Work And Sex Morality Across Cultures, Warren Tierney, Jay H. Iii. Hardy, Charles R. Ebersole, D. Viganola, E. G. Clemente, Christilene Du Plessis, Andree Hartanto, Nilotpal Jha, Theodore Charles Masters-Waage, Michael Schaerer
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
How can we maximize what is learned from a replication study? In the creative destruction approach to replication, the original hypothesis is compared not only to the null hypothesis, but also to predictions derived from multiple alternative theoretical accounts of the phenomenon. To this end, new populations and measures are included in the design in addition to the original ones, to help determine which theory best accounts for the results across multiple key outcomes and contexts. The present pre-registered empirical project compared the Implicit Puritanism account of intuitive work and sex morality to theories positing regional, religious, and social class …
Cultural Variability In The Association Between Age And Well-Being: The Role Of Uncertainty Avoidance, Smaranda Lawrie, Kimin Eom, Daniela Moza, Alin Gavreliuc, Heejung S. Kim
Cultural Variability In The Association Between Age And Well-Being: The Role Of Uncertainty Avoidance, Smaranda Lawrie, Kimin Eom, Daniela Moza, Alin Gavreliuc, Heejung S. Kim
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Past research has found a mixed relationship between age and subjective well-being. The current research advances the understanding of these findings by incorporating a cultural perspective. We tested whether the relationship between age and well-being is moderated by uncertainty avoidance, a cultural dimension dealing with society’s tolerance for ambiguity. In Study 1 (N = 64,228), using a multilevel approach with an international database, we found that older age was associated with lower well-being in countries higher in uncertainty avoidance but not in countries lower in uncertainty avoidance. Further, this cultural variation was mediated by a sense of control. In Study …
The Psychology Of Pro-Environmental Support: A Global Problem In Need Of Global Solutions, Kimin Eom, Viki Papadakis, David K. Sherman, Heejung S. Kim
The Psychology Of Pro-Environmental Support: A Global Problem In Need Of Global Solutions, Kimin Eom, Viki Papadakis, David K. Sherman, Heejung S. Kim
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
We review research that provides a sociocultural perspective on proenvironmental support. Despite the increasing volume of psychological research on proenvironmental action, there has been a relative dearth of consideration of sociocultural contexts, which poses critical theoretical and practical limitations to understanding and fostering proenvironmental actions across diverse populations. The sociocultural perspective posits that the primary motives driving action are context dependent. Building on this perspective, our research examines significant divergence in key determinants of proenvironmental support, focusing on several sociocultural variables, including national culture (individualism-collectivism), socioeconomic status, and religion. This program of research shows that personal environmental beliefs more directly …
Middle Ground Approach To Paradox: Within- And Between-Culture Examination Of The Creative Benefits Of Paradoxical Frames, Angela K. Y. Leung, Shyhnan Liou, Ella Micron-Spektor, Brandon Koh, David Chan, Roni Eisenberg, Iris K. Schneider
Middle Ground Approach To Paradox: Within- And Between-Culture Examination Of The Creative Benefits Of Paradoxical Frames, Angela K. Y. Leung, Shyhnan Liou, Ella Micron-Spektor, Brandon Koh, David Chan, Roni Eisenberg, Iris K. Schneider
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Thriving in increasingly complex and ambiguous environments requires creativity andthe capability to reconcile conflicting demands. Recent evidence with Western samplessuggested that paradoxical frames, or mental templates that encourage individuals torecognize and embrace contradictions, could produce creative benefits. We extendedthe timely, but understudied, topic by studying the nuances of for whom and whycreative advantages of paradoxical frames emerge. We suggest that people endorsinga middle ground approach are less likely to scrutinize conflict and reconcile withintegrative solutions, thus receiving less creative benefits of paradoxical frames. Fivestudies that examined individual and cultural differences in middle groundendorsement support our theory. Study 1 found that …
Attention To Context During Evaluative Learning And Context-Dependent Automatic Evaluation: A Cross-Cultural Analysis, Yang Ye, Yuk-Yue Tong, Chi-Yue Chiu, Bertram Gawronski
Attention To Context During Evaluative Learning And Context-Dependent Automatic Evaluation: A Cross-Cultural Analysis, Yang Ye, Yuk-Yue Tong, Chi-Yue Chiu, Bertram Gawronski
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Previous research has shown that changes in automatic evaluations can be limited to the context in which counterattitudinal information was acquired. This effect has been attributed to enhanced attention to context cues during the encoding of expectancy-violating counterattitudinal information. Drawing on previous evidence for cultural differences in attention to context and tolerance for inconsistency, the present research examined cultural differences in responses to conflicting evaluative information and the resulting context-effects on automatic evaluation. Study 1 revealed that both Canadian and Singaporean participants showed enhanced attention to context during exposure to counterattitudinal information. In a reanalysis of studies with Singaporean participants, …
Cross Cultural Regularities In The Cognitive Architecture Of Pride, Daniel Sznycer, Laith Al-Shawaf, Yoella Bereby-Meyer, Oliver Scott Curry, Delphine De Smet, Elsa Ermer, Sangin Kim, Sunhwa Kim, Norman P. Li, Maria Florencia Lopez Seal, Jennifer Mcclung, Jiaqing O, Yohsuke Ohtsubo, Tadeg Quillien, Max Schaub, Aaron Sell, Florian Van Leeuwen, Leda Cosmide, John Tooby
Cross Cultural Regularities In The Cognitive Architecture Of Pride, Daniel Sznycer, Laith Al-Shawaf, Yoella Bereby-Meyer, Oliver Scott Curry, Delphine De Smet, Elsa Ermer, Sangin Kim, Sunhwa Kim, Norman P. Li, Maria Florencia Lopez Seal, Jennifer Mcclung, Jiaqing O, Yohsuke Ohtsubo, Tadeg Quillien, Max Schaub, Aaron Sell, Florian Van Leeuwen, Leda Cosmide, John Tooby
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Pride occurs in every known culture, appears early in development, is reliably triggered by achievements and formidability, and causes a characteristic display that is recognized everywhere. Here, we evaluatethe theory that pride evolved to guide decisions relevant to pursuing actions that enhance valuation and respect for a person in the minds of others. By hypothesis, pride is a neurocomputational program tailored by selection to orchestrate cognition and behavior in the service of: (i) motivating the costeffective pursuit of courses of action that would increase others’ valuations and respect of the individual, (ii) motivating the advertisement of acts or characteristics whose …
A Conclusion, Yet An Opening To Enriching The Normative Approach Of Culture, Chi-Yue Chiu, M. J. Gelfand, J. R. Harrington, Angela K. Y. Leung, Zhi Liu, M. W. Morris, Yan Mu, G. Shteynberg, Kim-Pong Tam, Ching Wan, Xi Zou
A Conclusion, Yet An Opening To Enriching The Normative Approach Of Culture, Chi-Yue Chiu, M. J. Gelfand, J. R. Harrington, Angela K. Y. Leung, Zhi Liu, M. W. Morris, Yan Mu, G. Shteynberg, Kim-Pong Tam, Ching Wan, Xi Zou
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
We compile in this article the target article authors’ thoughtful responses to the commentaries. Their responses identify some common threads across the rich contents of the commentary pieces, interlink the observation and theoretical propositions in the commentaries with broader streams of research, present new perspectives inspired by the commentary contributors, and pose provocative questions to further ignite research efforts on the normative analysis of culture.
Emotional Fit With Culture: Predictor Of Individual Differences In Relational Well-Being, Jozefien De Leersnyder, Batja Mesquita, Heejung Kim, Kimin Eom, Hyewon Choi
Emotional Fit With Culture: Predictor Of Individual Differences In Relational Well-Being, Jozefien De Leersnyder, Batja Mesquita, Heejung Kim, Kimin Eom, Hyewon Choi
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
There is increasing evidence for emotional fit in couples and groups, but also within cultures. In the current research, we investigated the consequences of emotional fit at the cultural level. Given that emotions reflect people’s view on the world, and that shared views are associated with good social relationships, we expected that an individual’s fit to the average cultural patterns of emotion would be associated with relational well-being. Using an implicit measure of cultural fit of emotions, we found across 3 different cultural contexts (United States, Belgium, and Korea) that (1) individuals’ emotional fit is associated with their level of …
The Role Of Social Relationships And Culture In The Cognitive Representation Of Emotions, Sharon Koh, Christie N. Scollon, Derrick Wirtz
The Role Of Social Relationships And Culture In The Cognitive Representation Of Emotions, Sharon Koh, Christie N. Scollon, Derrick Wirtz
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
There are individual and cultural differences in how memories of our emotions are cognitively represented. This article examines the cognitive representation of emotions in different cultures, as a result of emotional (in)consistency in different cultures. Using a continuous semantic priming task, we showed in two studies that individuals who were less emotionally consistent across relationships have stronger associations of their emotions within those relationships. Further, we found (in Study 2) that in a culture characterised by higher levels of emotional inconsistency across relationships (Singapore), stronger associations between emotions within relationships were found than in a culture characterised by emotional consistency …
Virtue And Virility: Governing With Honor And The Association Or Dissociation Between Martial Honor And Moral Character Of U.S. Presidents, Legislators, And Justices, Dov Cohen, Angela K. Y. Leung
Virtue And Virility: Governing With Honor And The Association Or Dissociation Between Martial Honor And Moral Character Of U.S. Presidents, Legislators, And Justices, Dov Cohen, Angela K. Y. Leung
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
In many honor cultures, honor as martial honor and honor as character/integrity are often both subsumed under the banner of honor. In nonhonor cultures, these qualities are often separable. The present study examines political elites, revealing that Presidents, Congresspeople, and Supreme Court Justices from the Southern United States with a greater commitment to martial honor (as indexed by their military service) also show more integrity, character, and moral leadership. This relationship, however, does not hold for nonsoutherners. The present studies illustrate the need to examine both between culture differences in cultural logics (as these logics connect various behaviors under a …
Cultural Similarities And Differences In The Conceptualization Of Emotion, Christie N. Scollon, William Tov
Cultural Similarities And Differences In The Conceptualization Of Emotion, Christie N. Scollon, William Tov
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Research on emotional experiences across cultures is reviewed from a cultural psychological perspective. Psychometric approaches to evaluating the structure of emotions has consistently replicated two broad dimensions (positive and negative affect) in several countries. Nevertheless, there are cultural differences in other aspects of emotional experience such as the relation between positive and negative affect, the nature of specific emotions (e.g., pride and affection), and the types of emotions that are valued. Recent research on the cognitive organization of emotional experiences may provide additional insights and these methods await broader application in crosscultural research.
The Effects Of Culture And Friendship On Rewarding Honesty And Punishing Deception, Cynthia S. Wang, Angela K.-Y. Leung, Michelle Ya Hui See, Xiang Yu Gao
The Effects Of Culture And Friendship On Rewarding Honesty And Punishing Deception, Cynthia S. Wang, Angela K.-Y. Leung, Michelle Ya Hui See, Xiang Yu Gao
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The present research explores whether the type of relationship one holds with deceptive or honest actors influences cross-cultural differences in reward and punishment. Research suggests that Americans reward honest actors more than they punish deceptive perpetrators, whereas East Asians reward and punish equally (Wang & Leung, 2010). Our research suggests that the type of relationship with the actor matters for East Asians, but not for Americans. East Asians exhibit favoritism toward their friends by rewarding more than punishing them, but reward and punish equally when the actors are strangers (Experiment 1 and 2); Americans reward more than they punish regardless …
Economic Inequality Is Linked To Biased Self-Perception, Steve Loughnan, Peter Kuppens, Juri Allik, Katalin Balazs, Soledad De Lemus, Kitty Dumont, Rafael Gargurevich, Istvan Hidegkuti, Bernhard Leidner, Jennifer Yuk-Yue Tong
Economic Inequality Is Linked To Biased Self-Perception, Steve Loughnan, Peter Kuppens, Juri Allik, Katalin Balazs, Soledad De Lemus, Kitty Dumont, Rafael Gargurevich, Istvan Hidegkuti, Bernhard Leidner, Jennifer Yuk-Yue Tong
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
People’s self-perception biases often lead them to see themselves as better than the average person (a phenomenon known as self-enhancement). This bias varies across cultures, and variations are typically explained using cultural variables, such as individualism versus collectivism. We propose that socioeconomic differences among societies—specifically, relative levels of economic inequality—play an important but unrecognized role in how people evaluate themselves. Evidence for self-enhancement was found in 15 diverse nations, but the magnitude of the bias varied. Greater self-enhancement was found in societies with more income inequality, and income inequality predicted cross-cultural differences in self-enhancement better than did individualism/ collectivism. These …
Positioning The Booty-Call Relationship On The Spectrum Of Relationships: Sexual But More Emotional Than One-Night Stands, Peter K. Jonason, Norman P. Li, Jessica Richardson
Positioning The Booty-Call Relationship On The Spectrum Of Relationships: Sexual But More Emotional Than One-Night Stands, Peter K. Jonason, Norman P. Li, Jessica Richardson
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Most research on human sexuality has focused on long-term pairbonds and one-night stands. However, growing evidence suggests there are relationships that do not fit cleanly into either of those categories. One of these relationships is a ‘‘booty-call relationship.’’ The purpose of this study was to describe the sexual and emotional nature of booty-call relationships by (a) examining the types of emotional and sexual acts involved in booty-call relationships and (b) comparing the frequency of those acts in booty-call relationships to one-night stands and serious long-term relationships. In addition, the manner in which sociosexuality is associated with the commission of these …
Within- And Between-Culture Variation: Individual Differences And The Cultural Logics Of Honor, Face, And Dignity Cultures, Angela K.-Y. Leung, Dov Cohen
Within- And Between-Culture Variation: Individual Differences And The Cultural Logics Of Honor, Face, And Dignity Cultures, Angela K.-Y. Leung, Dov Cohen
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The CuPS (Culture × Person × Situation) approach attempts to jointly consider culture and individual differences, without treating either as noise and without reducing one to the other. Culture is important because it helps define psychological situations and create meaningful clusters of behavior according to particular logics. Individual differences are important because individuals vary in the extent to which they endorse or reject a culture's ideals. Further, because different cultures are organized by different logics, individual differences mean something different in each. Central to these studies are concepts of honor-related violence and individual worth as being inalienable versus socially conferred. …
The Cultural Dynamics Of Rewarding Honesty And Punishing Deception, Cynthia S. Wang, Angela K. Y. Leung
The Cultural Dynamics Of Rewarding Honesty And Punishing Deception, Cynthia S. Wang, Angela K. Y. Leung
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Recent research suggests that individuals reward honesty more than they punish deception. Five experiments showed that different patterns of rewards and punishments emerge for North American and East Asian cultures. Experiment 1 demonstrated that Americans rewarded more than they punished, whereas East Asians rewarded and punished in equivalent amounts. Experiments 2 and 3 revealed that these divergent patterns by culture could be explained by greater social mobility experienced by Americans. Experiments 4 and 5 examined how certain consequences of social mobility, approach—avoidance behavioral motivations and trust and felt obligation, can lead to disparate reward and punishment decisions within the two …
Culture, Psyche, And Body Make Each Other Up, Dov Cohen, Angela K. Y. Leung, Hans Ijzerman
Culture, Psyche, And Body Make Each Other Up, Dov Cohen, Angela K. Y. Leung, Hans Ijzerman
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The commentaries make important points, including ones about the purposeful uses of embodiment effects. Research examining such effects needs to look at how such effects play themselves out in people's everyday lives. Research might usefully integrate work on embodiment with work on attribution and work in other disciplines concerned with body–psyche connections (e.g., research on somaticizing versus “psychologizing” illnesses and hypercognizing versus hypocognizing emotions). Such work may help us understand the way positive and negative feedback loops operate as culture, psyche, and body make each other up.
Culture As Common Sense: Perceived Consensus Versus Personal Beliefs As Mechanisms Of Cultural Influence, Xi Zou, Kim-Pong Tam, Michael W. Morris, Sau-Lai Lee, Ivy Yee-Man Lau, Chi-Yue Chiu
Culture As Common Sense: Perceived Consensus Versus Personal Beliefs As Mechanisms Of Cultural Influence, Xi Zou, Kim-Pong Tam, Michael W. Morris, Sau-Lai Lee, Ivy Yee-Man Lau, Chi-Yue Chiu
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The authors propose that culture affects people through their perceptions of what is consensually believed. Whereas past research has examined whether cultural differences in social judgment are mediated by differences in individuals’ personal values and beliefs, this article investigates whether they are mediated by differences in individuals’ perceptions of the views of people around them. The authors propose that individuals who perceive that traditional views are culturally consensual (e.g., Chinese participants who believe that most of their fellows hold collectivistic values) will themselves behave and think in culturally typical ways. Four studies of previously well-established cultural differences found that cultural …
Toward A More Complete Understanding Of The Link Between Multicultural Experience And Creativity, William W. Maddux, Angela K.-Y. Leung, Chi-Yue Chiu, Adam D. Galinsky
Toward A More Complete Understanding Of The Link Between Multicultural Experience And Creativity, William W. Maddux, Angela K.-Y. Leung, Chi-Yue Chiu, Adam D. Galinsky
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Responds to G. J. Rich's comments on the current author's original article which presented evidence supporting the idea that multicultural experience can facilitate creativity. Rich has argued that our review, although timely and important, was somewhat limited in scope, focusing mostly on smaller forms of creativity ("little c": e.g., paper-and-pencil measures of creativity) as well as on larger forms of multicultural experience ("Big M": e.g., living in a foreign country). We agree with many aspects of Rich's assessment. The issue of whether different forms of multicultural experience can affect Big C creativity is of interest to both scholars and laypeople …
Multicultural Experience Enhances Creativity: The When And How, Angela K. Y. Leung, William W. Maddux, Adam D. Galinsky, Chi-Yue Chiu
Multicultural Experience Enhances Creativity: The When And How, Angela K. Y. Leung, William W. Maddux, Adam D. Galinsky, Chi-Yue Chiu
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Many practices aimed at cultivating multicultural competence in educational and organizational settings (e.g., exchange programs, diversity education in college, diversity management at work) assume that multicultural experience fosters creativity. In line with this assumption, the research reported in this article is the first to empirically demonstrate that exposure to multiple cultures in and of itself can enhance creativity. Overall, the authors found that extensiveness of multicultural experiences was positively related to both creative performance (insight learning, remote association, and idea generation) and creativity-supporting cognitive processes (retrieval of unconventional knowledge, recruitment of ideas from unfamiliar cultures for creative idea expansion). Furthermore, …
Positivity And The Construction Of Life Satisfaction Judgments: Global Happiness Is Not The Sum Of Its Parts, Ed Diener, Christie N. Scollon, Shigehiro Oishi, Vivian Dzokoto, Mark Eunkook Suh
Positivity And The Construction Of Life Satisfaction Judgments: Global Happiness Is Not The Sum Of Its Parts, Ed Diener, Christie N. Scollon, Shigehiro Oishi, Vivian Dzokoto, Mark Eunkook Suh
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The present study investigated how reports of satisfaction with specific versus global domains can be used to assess a disposition towards positivity in subjective well-being reports. College students from 41 societies (N = 7167) completed measures of life satisfaction and ratings of global and specific aspects of their lives. For example, participants rated satisfaction with their education (global) and satisfaction with their professors, textbooks, and lectures (specific). It was hypothesized that global measures would more strongly reflect individual differences in dispositional positivity, that is, a propensity to evaluate aspects of life in general as good. At both the individual and …