Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons^™

Twenty-One Years Later: Reflections On 9/11, Bessie Blackburn, Shaddi Spencer, Hayden O'Connor

Liberty University Journal of Statesmanship & Public Policy

Twenty-one years ago, one of the greatest attacks on the American republic occurred. On September 11, 2001, American Airlines Flights 11, 77, 93, and 177 were hijacked by Islamic extremists and crashed in New York City, Washington D.C., and Pennsylvania. The atrocity of these incidents and the extensive loss of life impacted not only the United States but the entire world. Nevertheless, in light of this tragedy the American people found unity in patriotism, rekindling a sense of national purpose in the form of the “Global War on Terrorism.” This document is a compilation of reflection articles written by individuals …

Tactical Mistakes: Women's Role In Terrorism, Laura Daniel

Liberty University Journal of Statesmanship & Public Policy

Since the 1970s, the word "terrorism" has become a well-known term. Almost two decades after 9/11, it has become a part of everyday vocabulary and, at times, dominates the news cycle. However, the faces we see associated with terrorism are mainly men. When talking of a training camp or a video claiming responsibility for terrorist attacks, women are not a part of the majority. However, women do play a significant role in terrorism. This article evaluates the history of women in terrorism and their positions in terror organizations, as well as the tactical mistake of overlooking women's role in global …

Cannibalizing The Constitution: On Terrorism, The Second Amendment, And The Threat To Civil Liberties, Francesca Laguardia

Department of Justice Studies Faculty Scholarship and Creative Works

This article explores the links between internet radicalization, access to weapons, and the current threat from terrorists who have been radicalized online. The prevalence of domestic terrorism, domestic hate groups, and online incitement and radicalization have led to considerable focus on the tension between counterterror efforts and the First Amendment. Many scholars recommend rethinking the extent of First Amendment protection, as well as Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendment protections, and some judges appear to be listening. Yet the Second Amendment has avoided this consideration, despite the fact that easy access to weapons is a necessary ingredient for the level of …

Terrorism Preparedness, Collaboration, And Organizational Culture In The National Capital Region, Anderson Percival Padmore

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Abstract Terrorism preparedness is essential for federal, state, and local governments. However, literature indicated that local governments may not be ready to respond to a terrorist event. The purpose of this quantitative study was to determine terrorism preparedness levels related to collaboration in the National Capital Region (NCR) of the United States to determine first responders’ perspectives regarding challenges of organizational change. The research questions for this study concentrated on the evaluation of terrorism- preparedness and organizational changes among first response agencies since 2014, Schein’s ideas of organizational cultural change were the theoretical foundation. Four NCR public safety agencies were …

Applying Situational Crime Prevention To Terrorism Against Stadiums, Emanuel Maurice Yeoman

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

According to recent studies, there has been increasing concern of terrorist threats to U.S. stadiums. The research problem is that existing U.S. stadium policies, procedures, and plans do not adequately address evacuation of special populations in the event of a terrorist threat. There is a particular concern regarding the adequacy of existing stadium evacuation plans for patrons with special needs. In the current study there were three research questions examining the organizational deficiencies and best practices of stadium evacuation plans currently in place to respond to terrorist threats How situational crime prevention (SCP) can help in the identification of deficiencies …

Nonreligious Explanations Of Boko Haram’S Resilience In Nigeria, Jimmy Imo

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Over the past decade, Boko Haram has become one of the world’s deadliest terror organizations. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore nonreligious explanations for the problem of resilience of Boko Haram in Nigeria. Rational choice theory provided the primary framework for the study. Data were collected through in-person and telephone interviews with 14 religious and government subject matter experts. Other sources of data included media publications, documents, audio-visual materials, and the internet. Data were inductively coded and subjected to thematic analysis. Findings showed that instead of religious ideology, Boko Haram’s resilience was due to poor policy …

Terrorism Preparedness, Collaboration, And Organizational Culture In The National Capital Region, Anderson Percival Padmore

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Abstract Terrorism preparedness is essential for federal, state, and local governments. However, literature indicated that local governments may not be ready to respond to a terrorist event. The purpose of this quantitative study was to determine terrorism preparedness levels related to collaboration in the National Capital Region (NCR) of the United States to determine first responders’ perspectives regarding challenges of organizational change. The research questions for this study concentrated on the evaluation of terrorism- preparedness and organizational changes among first response agencies since 2014, Schein’s ideas of organizational cultural change were the theoretical foundation. Four NCR public safety agencies were …

Examining Terrorism Attacks And Regional Preparedness In The United States, Trebor Curtis Yocum

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the U.S. government renewed efforts to prepare for future attacks. Despite research on federal and state government preparedness, there was a lack of scholarship on trends in terrorist attacks at the local level. The purpose of this quantitative descriptive study was to examine trends in terrorism attacks in the United States between 2001 and 2018 and determine whether significance exists between characteristics of the terrorism incidents (weapon used, target type) and region. The conceptual framework included Grundmann’s risk management and Tomuzia et al.’s risk assessment scenario models. Answering the research questions entailed examining trends in …

Terrorism And Social Media: Extremist Groups And College Student Recruitment, Marion Donald Bell Iii

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

College students are particularly vulnerable to recruitment by terrorist organizations. Social media is the primary tool used by extremist groups to target college students. This research was conducted to examine the extent to which college students are affected by extremist groups on social media. A qualitative research design was implemented to collect data from a diverse group of college students. Participants consisted of five experts in homeland security or law enforcement and 12 individuals who were students or recent graduates in fields related to law enforcement and homeland security. Social learning theory provided the theoretical foundation for this research. Results …

Socially Constructed Journalism And Lone Wolf Terrorists - A New York City Experience, Adrienne Pascal

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

AbstractJournalistic reporting normalized radical lone wolf terrorist activities compromising public and national safety. The purpose of this research was to explore news reports of four radical lone wolf events that occurred in New York City (NYC) between 2010 and 2017 to identify political slant toward societal normalization of radical lone wolf behavior. The framework of this phenomenological study was Borum’s four-stage pathway mindset model of terrorism combined with Berger and Luckmann’s social construction theory. The central research question addressed how socially constructed journalism stories of lone wolf terrorist events in NYC aligned with liberal to conservative political newsprint continuums. Data …

Transnational Threats To Maritime Systems And Seaport Security, Eric L. Hampton

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

An assessment of a 16-year period since the 9/11 attacks indicated that more than 14,000 security breaches in which security measures at seaports were circumvented due to vulnerabilities occurred and more than 24,000 suspicious activity reports were made. The susceptibility of United States’ seaports to groups engaged in criminal activities, including drug trafficking, cargo theft, and smuggling of contraband and people undermines security practices and renders the nation vulnerable to acts of terrorism. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore seaport security measures to identify and understand internal and external factors that may impact protection practices at U.S. …

Liberalism Versus Fundamentalism: The Ideological Conflict Between Tocqueville And Qtub, Mary Catherine E. Morris

Liberty University Journal of Statesmanship & Public Policy

This paper seeks to conclude whether Qtub has successfully discredited the values supported by Tocqueville to draw more Muslims to support an increased role of religion in society and influence the majority of Muslims to conduct violent jihad. It is hypothesized that Muslims agree with Qtub that Islam must be increasingly influential in society, but the majority do not seek to increase its role through, or for the purposes of, violent jihad. Differing in their views on freedom and liberty, freedom of religion and separation of church and state, and man-made laws but agreeing on the negative effects of materialism, …

How Can Presidents Properly Calibrate The Terror Threat?, Gabriel Rubin

Department of Justice Studies Faculty Scholarship and Creative Works

Presidential rhetoric has minimally changed from the narrative set by George W. Bush after the 9/11 attacks. Bush’s policies and agenda have also largely remained. This chapter provides proposals for change given the empirical and theoretical findings made in the book. The counterterrorist policy agenda needs to be narrowed and made more precise. The public needs to educate itself about the terror threat to understand that it is not a significant risk when weighed against others. Presidents need to be more careful with what words they use when describing America’s terrorist adversaries and with who they call terrorists. Recalibrating the …

Donald Trump, Twitter, And Islamophobia: The End Of Dignity In Presidential Rhetoric About Terrorism, Gabriel Rubin

Department of Justice Studies Faculty Scholarship and Creative Works

Donald Trump’s rhetoric is markedly different than that of just about every other American president. Trump’s speeches on terrorism and his related Islamophobia and anti-immigrant rhetoric are examined in this chapter. Trump’s use of Twitter and view of the presidency as a “permanent campaign” keep his followers in a state of near-permanent mobilization. Trump uses the rhetoric of fear to push his followers against Muslims and immigrants by linking terrorism to both groups. As Jeffrey Tulis opines, Trump is America’s first demagogue. This chapter highlights how Trump’s demagoguery and novel method for communicating with his followers has framed the terror …

An Examination Into Fusion Centers Impact On Information Sharing Post 9/11, Racquel Nicola Palmer

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

The aftermath of the 9/11 attacks on the United States resulted in the introduction of the National Fusion Center Network. This effort seeks to empower National Security by effectively sharing information between various law enforcement organizations. Since the establishment of the Network, information that addresses the Networks' standard operating procedures and existing barriers to share information effectively has been lacking. This caused many criticisms as to whether the network is in fact effective in fulfilling its mandate to effectively share information between the various law enforcement agencies. Utilizing Bandura's cognitive theory of behavioral change, this phenomenological study identifies the strategies …

Exploring Contemporary Counterterrorism And Perspectives Of Terrorism Experts To Combat Boko Haram, Enyinaya Njoku

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Within the last decade, the terrorist attacks by Boko Haram have been the topic of considerable scholarly focus; yet, there remains a lack of knowledge and understanding about the causes of failure in counterterrorism measures by the Nigerian government in Borno State. Using Wilner’s contemporary deterrence theory as the foundation, the purpose of this case study of the Nigeria Police Force (NPF) was to bridge the gap in knowledge to understand the causes of failure in counterterrorism measures by the Nigerian government and to explore alternate approaches to the counterterrorism efforts in Borno State to deter Boko Haram. Data were …

Sanctions And The Proliferation Of Terrorism: Cases Of Iran, Libya, And Bosnia-Herzegovina, Savanah Courtney

Public Administration & Policy

This study tests the hypothesis that the use of sanctions as a foreign policy tool produces favorable conditions for an increase in terrorism activity using cases of sanctions against Bosnia-Herzegovina, Libya, and Iran. Using literature as the basis for this hypothesis, data suggests that there is not significant evidence to support this theory using these cases. The circumstances surrounding the political environment and stability of each country tells different stories, where attributing rising terrorist activity to sanctions themselves ignores the complexity of foreign economies their political and social atmospheres in which they operate. This thesis alludes to several questions and …

U.S. Policymakers' Perspectives Regarding The Causes Of Terrorism And The Impact On U.S. Counterterrorism Policy, Jeffrey David Mcmanus

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

U.S. counterterrorism policy appears to be influenced by different perspectives, as evidenced by conflicting statements by U.S. presidents regarding the causes of terrorism. Academic theories are not always applied by U.S. government employees who develop, influence, and implement counterterrorism policy. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to understand U.S. government policymakers' perspectives on the causes of terrorism, the influences on these views, and the impact on U.S. counterterrorism policy. Six theories regarding the causes of terrorism provided the theoretical framework. Additional theories related to individual and organizational impact on decision-making provided a broader conceptual framework. Data were collected …

Counterterrorism And Human Rights Committees’ Influence On Terrorism And Human Rights Atrocities, Janice Marie Gravely

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

The United Nations Counterterrorism and Human Rights Committees’ current collaborative practices have failed to reduce global terrorists’ activities and human rights abuses associated with counterterrorism activities. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore and compare collaborative processes between the committees in combatting terrorism and human rights violations associated with counterterrorism. The researched was centered around two key questions: The similarities and differences with information sharing processes and the impacts of the committees’ collaborative processes on terrorists’ activities and human rights violations. For this study, the pragmatic paradigm theoretical framework was used, focusing on the descriptive exploratory design. …

Repercussions Of The Mechanistic Dehumanization Of Muslim Americans, Resilience, And Sustainable Communities, Melvin Walters

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

There is a lack of research on the relationship between dehumanization of minority religious groups and affiliation with terrorism, which suggests a need to consider the consequences of dehumanization perceptions beyond promoting aggression. This qualitative case study addresses whether dehumanization embedded in public policies influences Muslim Americans 18 to 25 years of age, native and nonnative, to engage in homegrown terrorism. Using Schneider and Ingram’s social constructions of target populations as the foundation, research questions focused on how perceptions of mechanistic dehumanization in policy design influence homegrown terrorism among Muslim- American adults. Data were acquired through archival data that included …

Framing Islamophobia And Civil Liberties: American Political Discourse Post 9/11, Lama Hamdan

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Rhetorical frames are used to support political agendas, define problems, diagnose causes, make policy judgments, and suggest solutions. Following the attacks on September 11, 2001, politicians and media pundits used Islamophobia as a fear-mongering tactic to justify public policy formation. The purpose of this study was to analyze public discourse on Islamic terrorism in arguments advocating government surveillance, restrictive immigration policies, and other erosions of U.S. constitutional protections of its citizens. This study drew on the postmodern theories of Lakoff, Lyotard, and Said to critically examine U.S. political discourse on Islam and terrorism. Three conceptual rhetorical frames were examined: Clash …

The Convergence Of The War On Terror And The War On Drugs: A Counter-Narcoterrorism Approach As A Policy Response, Lindsay Burton

CMC Senior Theses

This thesis investigates how and why U.S. policies and agencies are ill-equipped to respond to narco-terrorism and offers some policy recommendations for remedying that. Narco-terrorism is the merging of terrorism and drug trafficking. Terrorist organizations and narcotics traffickers each have much to offer the other; there is potential for symbiosis in the form of cooperation and even hybridization. Examination of the dynamics between terrorist organizations and drug traffickers, combined with an evaluation of the US responses to narcoterrorism in Colombia and Afghanistan, makes it clear that current US policy responses fail to recognize narcoterrorism as a unique challenge, and instead …

Patterns Within Nine Preattack Phases That Emerged In Israel Suicide Bombing Cases, Aaron Richman

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

From 2000 to 2013, Israel had the second highest number of deaths from suicide attacks and was on the list of countries that may experience increases in terrorism due to ongoing conflicts. Suicide bombings present highly complex situations for counterterrorism and counterinsurgency professionals. Using Freeman, Tucker, and Merton's framework of 9 preattack phases as the primary theoretical constuct, the purpose of this multiple case study was to explore specific patterns that consistently emerged in the adversary planning process for 6 successful or failed suicide bombing cases in Israel. Secondary, archival data were acquired through a data use agreement with a …

Psychological Consequences Of The Boko Haram Insurgency For Nigerian Children, Paul Adebayo Adepelumi

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Studies have examined the causes and impacts of terrorism in Nigeria; however, no known research has documented the psychological impacts of witnessing ongoing Boko Haram terrorist violence based on the lived experiences of Nigerian children. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to examine the psychological consequences of the Boko Haram insurgency based on the lived experience of Nigerian children exposed to terrorism in Nigeria. The study's theoretical framework combined Piaget's theory of cognitive development and punctuated equilibrium theory. The central research question examined the adverse psychological effects of the Boko Haram insurgency for Nigerian children residing in Nigeria. …

Exploring Peace Education For Consensual Peace Building In Nigeria, Agada John Elachi

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Violence, insurgency, and terrorism have been a recurring problem in Nigeria. Efforts to address these challenges through the use of force have proved ineffective. The purpose of this study was to explore the application of peace education in the educational curriculum with a view to promoting consensual peace building in Kafanchan Town, Jema'a Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. Although peace education has been applied in some countries, this approach has not been applied to these challenges plaguing Nigeria. This study adopts the survey research method and utilizes the tripodal theoretical framework of ethnic conflict theory, enemy system theory, …

Local Law Enforcement's Ability To Transform Inputs Into Counterterrorism Outputs, Melissa S. Gresham

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Leadership within local police organizations should be able to, but do not, process information and create actionable strategies aimed toward proactive counterterrorism practices. This problem could lead to future terrorist attacks within the United States if police agencies do not adjust their tactics in response to growing terrorist threats. A possible cause of this problem is that leadership within local law enforcement agencies is reactive in nature and as a consequence, do not encourage officers to engage in proactive strategies. Using Easton's conceptualization of systems theory as the foundation, the purpose of this case study of a single law enforcement …

American National Security Strategy As It Pertains To The Afghanistan War, Robert Hayworth

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Following 16 years of war in Afghanistan the number of U.S. military, Coalition forces and Afghan civilian fatalities has exceeded the number of Americans lost on 9/11 and has cost the United States nearly $841 billion dollars. The results are that Afghanistan remains in turmoil and that terrorist attacks, the reason for the invasion, continues. The question is should United States assess a different approach that would result in less blood and treasure being spent to address the need to mitigate terrorist threats. Guided by the analysis of conventional- centric and asymmetric-centric approaches to a counterterrorism strategy, this qualitative study …

Material Support Laws And Critical Race Theory, Nichole M. Pace

Access*: Interdisciplinary Journal of Student Research and Scholarship

The paper examines terrorism designation and material support laws for structural racism using Critical Race Theory. Legislation concerning terrorist organizations continues to limit efforts of humanitarian organizations and refugee applicants. The impact of such legislation extends beyond the designated terrorist organizations to the communities and countries they inhabit. This article describes the legal statutes and issues related to terrorist designation and material support laws before defining Critical Race Theory. The article seeks to understand the structural racism involved in the defined statutes and procedures. Using Critical Race Theory, the article defines how material support laws and terrorist designation procedures are …

Why We Have The Center For The Resolution Of Intractable Conflict In Oxford, John, Lord Alderdice

New England Journal of Public Policy

The Center for the Resolution of Intractable Conflict (CRIC) was formally established at Harris Manchester College by a decision of the Governing Body of the College in 2013 to facilitate research, teaching and training, seminars and conferences, and direct engagement in situations of political violence and long-standing community conflict in various parts of the world.

The CRIC is a very young institution, but already it is having an impact out of proportion to its size and modest resources. This is because the issues we are addressing have a heightened public profile and also because of the quality and leading-edge of …

Attack At Fort Hood: Experiences And Suggestions For Security, William P. Moravits

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

In the past 8 years, at least 4 lone wolf terrorists have targeted military bases or recruiting centers in the United States and research suggests attack on the US military are increasing globally. The problem was that research had not addressed the lived experiences of survivors of lone wolf attacks or how they could inform procedures regarding a sense of security for military men and women. The purpose of this research was to establish a need to address threats to the security of the military from these attacks, to provide a rich description of survivors' experiences of the attack at …