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Full-Text Articles in Physical Sciences and Mathematics

Privacy Engine For Context-Aware Enterprise Application Services, Marion Blount, John Davis, Maria Ebling, William Jerome, Barry Leiba, Xuan Liu, Archan Misra Dec 2008

Privacy Engine For Context-Aware Enterprise Application Services, Marion Blount, John Davis, Maria Ebling, William Jerome, Barry Leiba, Xuan Liu, Archan Misra

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Satisfying the varied privacy preferences of individuals, while exposing context data to authorized applications and individuals, remains a major challenge for context-aware computing. This paper describes our experiences in building a middleware component, the context privacy engine (CPE), that enforces a role-based, context-dependent privacy model for enterprise domains. While fundamentally an ACL-based access control scheme, CPE extends the traditional ACL mechanism with usage control and context constraints. This paper focuses on discussing issues related to managing and evaluating context-dependent privacy policies. Extensive experimental studies with a production-grade implementation and real-life context sources demonstrate that the CPE can support a large …


Profile-Guided Program Simplification For Effective Testing And Analysis, Lingxiao Jiang, Zhendong Su Nov 2008

Profile-Guided Program Simplification For Effective Testing And Analysis, Lingxiao Jiang, Zhendong Su

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Many testing and analysis techniques have been developed for inhouse use. Although they are effective at discovering defects before a program is deployed, these techniques are often limited due to the complexity of real-world code and thus miss program faults. It will be the users of the program who eventually experience failures caused by the undetected faults. To take advantage of the large number of program runs carried by the users, recent work has proposed techniques to collect execution profiles from the users for developers to perform post-deployment failure analysis. However, in order to protect users' privacy and to reduce …


Specification Mining Of Symbolic Scenario-Based Models, David Lo, Shahar Maoz Oct 2008

Specification Mining Of Symbolic Scenario-Based Models, David Lo, Shahar Maoz

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Many dynamic analysis approaches to specification mining, which extract behavioral models from execution traces, do not consider object identities. This limits their power when used to analyze traces of general object oriented programs. In this work we present a novel specification mining approach that considers object identities, and, moreover, generalizes from specifications involving concrete objects to their symbolic class-level abstractions. Our approach uses data mining methods to extract significant scenario-based specifications in the form of Damm and Harel's live sequence charts (LSC), a formal and expressive extension of classic sequence diagrams. We guarantee that all mined symbolic LSCs are significant …


Resource-Aware Video Multicasting Via Access Gateways In Wireless Mesh Networks, Wanqing Tu, Cormac J. Sreenan, Chun Tung Chou, Archan Misra Oct 2008

Resource-Aware Video Multicasting Via Access Gateways In Wireless Mesh Networks, Wanqing Tu, Cormac J. Sreenan, Chun Tung Chou, Archan Misra

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

This paper studies video multicasting in large scale areas using wireless mesh networks. The focus is on the use of Internet access gateways that allow a choice of alternative routes to avoid potentially lengthy multi-hop wireless paths with low capacity. A set of heuristic-based algorithms are described that together aim to maximize network capacity: the two-tier integrated architecture algorithm, the weighted gateway uploading algorithm, the link-controlled routing tree algorithm, and the alternative channel assignment algorithm. These algorithms use different approaches to arrange multicast group members into a clustered and two-tier integrated architecture in which network protocols can make use of …


Specifying And Verifying Event-Based Fairness Enhanced Systems, Jun Sun, Yang Liu, Jin Song Dong, Hai H. Wang Oct 2008

Specifying And Verifying Event-Based Fairness Enhanced Systems, Jun Sun, Yang Liu, Jin Song Dong, Hai H. Wang

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Liveness/Fairness plays an important role in software specification, verification and development. Existing event-based compositional models are safety-centric. In this paper, we describe a framework for systematically specifying and verifying event-based systems under fairness assumptions. We introduce different event annotations to associate fairness constraints with individual events. Fairness annotated events can be used to embed liveness/fairness assumptions in event-based models flexibly and naturally. We show that state-of-the-art verification algorithms can be extended to verify models under fairness assumptions, with little computational overhead. We further improve the algorithm by other model checking techniques like partial order reduction. A toolset named Pat has …


Link Layer Multicast Using Smart Antennas: No Client Left Behind, Souvik Sen, Jie Xiong, Rahul Ghosh, Romit Roy Choudhury Oct 2008

Link Layer Multicast Using Smart Antennas: No Client Left Behind, Souvik Sen, Jie Xiong, Rahul Ghosh, Romit Roy Choudhury

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Wireless link layer multicast is an important service primitive for emerging applications, such as live video, streaming audio, and other content telecasts. The broadcast nature of the wireless channel is amenable to multicast because a single packet transmission may be received by all clients in the multicast group. However, in view of diverse channel conditions at different clients, the rate of such a transmission is bottlenecked by the rate of the weakest client. Multicast throughput degrades severely. Attempts to increase the data rate result in lower reliability and higher unfairness. This paper utilizes smart beamforming antennas to improve multicast performance …


Specifying And Verifying Sensor Networks: An Experiment Of Formal Methods, Jin Song Dong, Jing Sun, Jun Sun, Kenji Taguchi, Xian Zhang Oct 2008

Specifying And Verifying Sensor Networks: An Experiment Of Formal Methods, Jin Song Dong, Jing Sun, Jun Sun, Kenji Taguchi, Xian Zhang

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

With the development of sensor technology and electronic miniaturization, wireless sensor networks have shown a wide range of promising applications as well as challenges. Early stage sensor network analysis is critical, which allows us to reveal design errors before sensor deployment. Due to their distinguishable features, system specification and verification of sensor networks are highly non-trivial tasks. On the other hand, numerous formal theories and analysis tools have been developed in formal methods community, which may offer a systematic method for formal analysis of sensor networks. This paper presents our attempt on applying formal methods to sensor network specification/verification. An …


Model Checking Csp Revisited: Introducing A Process Analysis Toolkit, Jun Sun, Yang Liu, Jin Song Dong Oct 2008

Model Checking Csp Revisited: Introducing A Process Analysis Toolkit, Jun Sun, Yang Liu, Jin Song Dong

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

FDR, initially introduced decades ago, is the de facto analyzer for Communicating Sequential Processes (CSP). Model checking techniques have been evolved rapidly since then. This paper describes PAT, i.e., a process analysis toolkit which complements FDR in several aspects. PAT is designed to analyze event-based compositional system models specified using CSP as well as shared variables and asynchronous message passing. It supports automated refinement checking, model checking of LTL extended with events, etc. In this paper, we highlight how partial order reduction is applied to improve refinement checking in PAT. Experiment results show that PAT outperforms FDR in some cases.


A Study Of Early Stage Game Design And Prototyping, Brien Colwell, Richard C. Davis, James A. Landay Oct 2008

A Study Of Early Stage Game Design And Prototyping, Brien Colwell, Richard C. Davis, James A. Landay

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Computer games and simulations can be valuable teaching and communication tools, and they are a powerful form of self-expression. Unfortunately, creating games requires programming, and programming requires time and skill. Some tools facilitate game creation to motivate novice programmers, but programming is still necessary. Other systems require less programming, but they are narrowly focused. To enable faster, simpler, and more expressive tools for professionals and amateurs, we have explored the processes and tools used in the early stages of game and simulation design. Interviews with educators clarified the uses of simulations in the classroom, while interviews with professional game designers …


Software Nightmares, Manoj Thulasidas Sep 2008

Software Nightmares, Manoj Thulasidas

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

To err is human, but to really foul things up, you need a computer. So states the remarkably insightful Murphy’s Law. And nowhere else does this ring truer than in our financial workplace. After all, it is the financial sector that drove the rapid progress in the computing industry – which is why the first computing giant had the word “business” in its name. The financial industry keeps up with the developments in the computer industry for one simple reason. Stronger computers and smarter programs mean more money — a concept we readily grasp. As we use the latest and …


Hierarchical Inter-Object Traces For Specification Mining, David Lo, Shahar Maoz Aug 2008

Hierarchical Inter-Object Traces For Specification Mining, David Lo, Shahar Maoz

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Major challenges of dynamic analysis approaches to specification mining include scalability over long traces as well as comprehensibility and expressivity of results. We present a novel use of object hierarchies over inter-object traces as an abstraction/refinement mechanism enabling scalable, incremental, top-down mining of scenario-based specifications.


Mining Patterns And Rules For Software Specification Discovery, David Lo, Siau-Cheng Khoo Aug 2008

Mining Patterns And Rules For Software Specification Discovery, David Lo, Siau-Cheng Khoo

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Software specifications are often lacking, incomplete and outdated in the industry. Lack and incomplete specifications cause various software engineering problems. Studies have shown that program comprehension takes up to 45% of software development costs. One of the root causes of the high cost is the lack-of documented specification. Also, outdated and incomplete specification might potentially cause bugs and compatibility issues. In this paper, we describe novel data mining techniques to mine or reverse engineer these specifications from the pool of software engineering data. A large amount of software data is available for analysis. One form of software data is program …


User Guidance Of Resource-Adaptive Systems, João Pedro Sousa, Rajesh Krishna Balan, Vahe Poladian, David Garlan, Mahadev Satyanarayanan Jul 2008

User Guidance Of Resource-Adaptive Systems, João Pedro Sousa, Rajesh Krishna Balan, Vahe Poladian, David Garlan, Mahadev Satyanarayanan

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

This paper presents a framework for engineering resource-adaptive software systems targeted at small mobile devices. The proposed framework empowers users to control tradeoffs among a rich set of ervicespecific aspects of quality of service. After motivating the problem, the paper proposes a model for capturing user preferences with respect to quality of service, and illustrates prototype user interfaces to elicit such models. The paper then describes the extensions and integration work made to accommodate the proposed framework on top of an existing software infrastructure for ubiquitous computing. The research question addressed here is the feasibility of coordinating resource allocation and …


Mining Past-Time Temporal Rules From Execution Traces, David Lo, Siau-Cheng Khoo, Chao Liu Jul 2008

Mining Past-Time Temporal Rules From Execution Traces, David Lo, Siau-Cheng Khoo, Chao Liu

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Specification mining is a process of extracting specifications, often from program execution traces. These specifications can in turn be used to aid program understanding, monitoring and verification. There are a number of dynamic-analysis-based specification mining tools in the literature, however none so far extract past time temporal expressions in the form of rules stating: whenever a series of events occurs, previously another series of events has happened. Rules of this format are commonly found in practice and useful for various purposes. Most rule-based specification mining tools only mine future-time temporal expression. Many past-time temporal rules like whenever a resource is …


Bounded Model Checking Of Compositional Processes, Jun Sun, Yang Liu, Jin Song Dong, Jing Sun Jul 2008

Bounded Model Checking Of Compositional Processes, Jun Sun, Yang Liu, Jin Song Dong, Jing Sun

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Verification techniques like SAT-based bounded model checking have been successfully applied to a variety of system models. Applying bounded model checking to compositional process algebras is, however, not a trivial task. One challenge is that the number of system states for process algebra models is not statically known, whereas exploring the full state space is computationally expensive. This paper presents a compositional encoding of hierarchical processes as SAT problems and then applies state-of-the-art SAT solvers for bounded model checking. The encoding avoids exploring the full state space for complex systems so as to deal with state space explosion. We developed …


Timeline Prediction Framework For Iterative Software Engineering Projects With Changes, Kay Berkling, Georgios Kiragiannis, Armin Zundel, Subhajit Datta Jul 2008

Timeline Prediction Framework For Iterative Software Engineering Projects With Changes, Kay Berkling, Georgios Kiragiannis, Armin Zundel, Subhajit Datta

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Even today, software projects still suffer from delays and budget overspending. The causes for this problem are compounded when the project team is distributed across different locations and generally attributed to the decreasing ability to communicate well (due to cultural, linguistic, and physical distance). Many projects, especially those with off-shoring component, consist of small iterations with changes, deletions and additions, yet there is no formal model of the flow of iterations available. A number of commercially available project prediction tools for projects as a whole exist, but the model adaptation process by iteration, if it exists, is unclear. Furthermore, no …


Searching Correlated Objects In A Long Sequence, Ken C. K. Lee, Wang-Chien Lee, Donna Peuquet, Baihua Zheng Jul 2008

Searching Correlated Objects In A Long Sequence, Ken C. K. Lee, Wang-Chien Lee, Donna Peuquet, Baihua Zheng

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Sequence, widely appearing in various applications (e.g. event logs, text documents, etc) is an ordered list of objects. Exploring correlated objects in a sequence can provide useful knowledge among the objects, e.g., event causality in event log and word phrases in documents. In this paper, we introduce correlation query that finds correlated pairs of objects often appearing closely to each other in a given sequence. A correlation query is specified by two control parameters, distance bound, the requirement of object closeness, and correlation threshold, the minimum requirement of correlation strength of result pairs. Instead of processing the query by scanning …


Mining Temporal Rules For Software Maintenance, David Lo, Siau-Cheng Khoo, Chao Liu Jul 2008

Mining Temporal Rules For Software Maintenance, David Lo, Siau-Cheng Khoo, Chao Liu

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Software evolution incurs difficulties in program comprehension and software verification, and hence it increases the cost of software maintenance. In this study, we propose a novel technique to mine from program execution traces a sound and complete set of statistically significant temporal rules of arbitrary lengths. The extracted temporal rules reveal invariants that the program observes, and will consequently guide developers to understand the program behaviors, and facilitate all downstream applications such as verification and debugging. Different from previous studies that were restricted to mining two-event rules (e.g., (lock) →(unlock)), our algorithm discovers rules of arbitrary lengths. In order to …


Timed Automata Patterns, Jin Song Dong, Ping Hao, Shengchao Qin, Jun Sun, Wang Yi Jun 2008

Timed Automata Patterns, Jin Song Dong, Ping Hao, Shengchao Qin, Jun Sun, Wang Yi

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Timed Automata have proven to be useful for specification and verification of real-time systems. System design using Timed Automata relies on explicit manipulation of clock variables. A number of automated analyzers for Timed Automata have been developed. However, Timed Automata lack composable patterns for high-level system design. Specification languages like Timed Communicating Sequential Process (CSP) and Timed Communicating Object-Z (TCOZ) are well suited for presenting compositional models of complex real-time systems. In this work, we define a set of composable Timed Automata patterns based on hierarchical constructs in time-enriched process algebras. The patterns facilitate the hierarchical design of complex systems …


Information-Theory Based Optimal Location Management Schemes For Integrated Multi-System Wireless Networks, Archan Misra, Abhishek Roy, Sajal K. Das Jun 2008

Information-Theory Based Optimal Location Management Schemes For Integrated Multi-System Wireless Networks, Archan Misra, Abhishek Roy, Sajal K. Das

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

In a multisystem environment where a mobile node can utilize multiple interfaces and simultaneously connect to multiple providers, new opportunities exist for efficient location management strategies spanning heterogeneous cellular wireless networks. In this paper, an integrated framework is developed for location management in such a multi-system, fourth generation (4 G) wireless networks. This information-theoretic framework allows each individual sub-system to operate fairly independently, and does not require the knowledge of individual sub-network topologies. An efficient location management in such a loosely coupled network is designed by having a mobile node view its movement as a vector-valued sequence, and then transmit …


Localized Minimum-Latency Broadcasting In Multi-Radio Multi-Rate Wireless Mesh Networks, Junaid Qadir, Chun Tung Chou, Archan Misra, Joo Ghee Lim Jun 2008

Localized Minimum-Latency Broadcasting In Multi-Radio Multi-Rate Wireless Mesh Networks, Junaid Qadir, Chun Tung Chou, Archan Misra, Joo Ghee Lim

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

We address the problem of minimizing the worst-case broadcast delay in ldquomulti-radio multi-channel multi-rate wireless mesh networksrdquo (MR2-MC WMN) in a distributed and localized fashion. Efficient broadcasting in such networks is especially challenging due to the desirability of exploiting the ldquowireless broadcast advantagerdquo (WBA), the interface-diversity, the channel-diversity and the rate-diversity offered by these networks. We propose a framework that calculates a set of forwarding nodes and transmission rate at these forwarding nodes irrespective of the broadcast source. Thereafter, a forwarding tree is constructed taking into consideration the source of broadcast. Our broadcasting algorithms are distributed and utilize locally available …


Advances And Challenges For Scalable Provenance In Stream Processing Systems, Archan Misra, Marion Blount, Anastasios Kementsietsidis, Daby Sow, Min Wang Jun 2008

Advances And Challenges For Scalable Provenance In Stream Processing Systems, Archan Misra, Marion Blount, Anastasios Kementsietsidis, Daby Sow, Min Wang

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

While data provenance is a well-studied topic in both database and workflow systems, its support within stream processing systems presents a new set of challenges. Part of the challenge is the high stream event rate and the low processing latency requirements imposed by many streaming applications. For example, emerging streaming applications in healthcare or finance call for data provenance, as illustrated in the Century stream processing infrastructure that we are building for supporting online healthcare analytics. At anytime, given an output data element (e.g., a medical alert) generated by Century, the system must be able to retrieve the input and …


Seemon: Scalable And Energy-Efficient Context Monitoring Framework For Sensor-Rich Mobile Environments, Seungwoo Kang, Jinwon Lee, Hyukjae Jang, Hyonik Lee, Youngki Lee, Souneil Park, Taiwoo Park, Junehwa Song Jun 2008

Seemon: Scalable And Energy-Efficient Context Monitoring Framework For Sensor-Rich Mobile Environments, Seungwoo Kang, Jinwon Lee, Hyukjae Jang, Hyonik Lee, Youngki Lee, Souneil Park, Taiwoo Park, Junehwa Song

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Proactively providing services to mobile individuals is essential for emerging ubiquitous applications. The major challenge in providing users with proactive services lies in continuously monitoring their contexts based on numerous sensors. The context monitoring with rich sensors imposes heavy workloads on mobile devices with limited computing and battery power. We present SeeMon, a scalable and energy-efficient context monitoring framework for sensor-rich, resource-limited mobile environments. Running on a personal mobile device, SeeMon effectively performs context monitoring involving numerous sensors and applications. On top of SeeMon, multiple applications on the device can proactively understand users' contexts and react appropriately. This paper proposes …


Probabilistically Reliable On-Demand Multicast In Wireless Mesh Networks, Xin Zhao, Chun Tung Chou, Jun Guo, Sanjay Jha, Archan Misra Jun 2008

Probabilistically Reliable On-Demand Multicast In Wireless Mesh Networks, Xin Zhao, Chun Tung Chou, Jun Guo, Sanjay Jha, Archan Misra

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

This paper studies probabilistically reliable multicast in wireless mesh networks (WMNs), utilizing MAC layer re-transmission and wireless broadcast advantage to improve both the multicast throughput and the delivery rate. We first present a new multicast routing metric which we call the expected multicast transmissions (EMT). EMT captures the effect of link packet delivery ratio, MAC layer retransmission and wireless broadcast advantage at the same time. The EMT of a MAC layer multicast transmission is the expected number of data transmissions (including retransmissions) required for a packet to reach all the recipients. The EMT of a multicast tree is the sum …


Utility-Based Adaptation In Mission-Oriented Wireless Sensor Networks, Sharanya Eswaran, Archan Misra, Thomas La Porta Jun 2008

Utility-Based Adaptation In Mission-Oriented Wireless Sensor Networks, Sharanya Eswaran, Archan Misra, Thomas La Porta

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

This paper extends the distributed network utility maximization (NUM) framework to consider the case of resource sharing by multiple competing missions in a military-centric wireless sensor network (WSN) environment. Prior work on NUM-based optimization has considered unicast flows with sender-based utilities in either wireline or wireless networks. We extend the NUM framework to consider three key new features observed in mission-centric WSN environments: i) the definition of an individual mission's utility as a joint function of data from multiple sensor sources ii) the consumption of each senders (sensor) data by multiple receivers (missions) and iii) the multicast-tree based dissemination of …


Scalable Detection Of Semantic Clones, Mark Gabel, Lingxiao Jiang, Zhendong Su May 2008

Scalable Detection Of Semantic Clones, Mark Gabel, Lingxiao Jiang, Zhendong Su

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Several techniques have been developed for identifying similar code fragments in programs. These similar fragments, referred to as code clones, can be used to identify redundant code, locate bugs, or gain insight into program design. Existing scalable approaches to clone detection are limited to finding program fragments that are similar only in their contiguous syntax. Other, semantics-based approaches are more resilient to differences in syntax, such as reordered statements, related statements interleaved with other unrelated statements, or the use of semantically equivalent control structures. However, none of these techniques have scaled to real world code bases. These approaches capture semantic …


A Verification System For Timed Interval Calculus, Chunqing Chen, Jin Song Dong, Jun Sun May 2008

A Verification System For Timed Interval Calculus, Chunqing Chen, Jin Song Dong, Jun Sun

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Timed Interval Calculus (TIC) is a highly expressive set-based notation for specifying and reasoning about embedded real-time systems. However, it lacks mechanical proving support, as its verification usually involves infinite time intervals and continuous dynamics. In this paper, we develop a system based on a generic theorem prover, Prototype Verification System (PVS), to assist formal verification of TIC at a high grade of automation. TIC semantics has been constructed by the PVS typed higher-order logic. Based on the encoding, we have checked all TIC reasoning rules and discovered subtle flaws. A translator has been implemented in Java to automatically transform …


A Scalable Approach To Multi-Style Architectural Modeling And Verification, Stephen Wong, Jing Sun, Ian Warren, Jun Sun Apr 2008

A Scalable Approach To Multi-Style Architectural Modeling And Verification, Stephen Wong, Jing Sun, Ian Warren, Jun Sun

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Software Architecture represents the high level description of a system in terms of components, external properties and communication. Despite its importance in the software engineering process, the lack of formal description and verification support limits the value of developing architectural models. Automated formal engineering methods can provide an effective means to precisely describe and rigorously verify intended structures and behaviors of software systems. In this paper, we present an approach to support the design and verification of software architectural models using the Alloy analyzer. Based on our earlier work, we propose a fundamental library for specifying system structures in terms …


A Formal Model Of Semantic Web Service Ontology (Wsmo) Execution, Hai H. Wang, Nick Gibbins, Terry R. Payne, Ahmed Saleh, Jun Sun Apr 2008

A Formal Model Of Semantic Web Service Ontology (Wsmo) Execution, Hai H. Wang, Nick Gibbins, Terry R. Payne, Ahmed Saleh, Jun Sun

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Semantic Web services have been one of the most significant research areas within the semantic Web vision, and have been recognized as a promising technology that exhibits huge commercial potential. Current semantic Web service research focuses on defining models and languages for the semantic markup of all relevant aspects of services, which are accessible through a Web service interface. The Web service modelling ontology (WSMO) is one of the most significant semantic Web service framework proposed to date. To support the standardization and tool support of WSMO, a formal semantics of the language is highly desirable. As there are a …


Rate-Diversity And Resource-Aware Broadcast And Multicast In Multi-Rate Wireless Mesh Networks, Bao Hua Liu, Chun Tung Chou, Archan Misra, Sanjay Jha Apr 2008

Rate-Diversity And Resource-Aware Broadcast And Multicast In Multi-Rate Wireless Mesh Networks, Bao Hua Liu, Chun Tung Chou, Archan Misra, Sanjay Jha

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

This paper focuses on the problem of increasing the traffic capacity (volume of admissible traffic) of broadcast and multicast flows in a wireless mesh network (WMN). We study and suggest routing strategies where the process of constructing the forwarding tree considers three distinct features: (a) the ability of individual mesh nodes to perform link-layer broadcasts at multiple rates, (b) the wireless broadcast advantage, whereby a single broadcast transmission covers multiple neighboring receivers and (c) the residual transmission capacity at a WMN node, subject to intereference-based constraints from existing traffic flows in its neighborhood. Our metric of interest is the total …