COVID-19 Commons^™

Increasing Covid-19 Testing And Vaccination Uptake In The Take Care Texas Community-Based Randomized Trial: Adaptive Geospatial Analysis, Kehe Zhang, Jocelyn V Hunyadi, Marcia C De Oliveira Otto, Miryoung Lee, Zitong Zhang, Ryan Ramphul, Jose-Miguel Yamal, Ashraf Yaseen, Alanna C Morrison, Shreela Sharma, Mohammad Hossein Rahbar, Xu Zhang, Stephen Linder, Dritana Marko, Rachel White Roy, Deborah Banerjee, Esmeralda Guajardo, Michelle Crum, Belinda Reininger, Maria E Fernandez, Cici Bauer

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

BACKGROUND: Geospatial data science can be a powerful tool to aid the design, reach, efficiency, and impact of community-based intervention trials. The project titled Take Care Texas aims to develop and test an adaptive, multilevel, community-based intervention to increase COVID-19 testing and vaccination uptake among vulnerable populations in 3 Texas regions: Harris County, Cameron County, and Northeast Texas.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to develop a novel procedure for adaptive selections of census block groups (CBGs) to include in the community-based randomized trial for the Take Care Texas project.

METHODS: CBG selection was conducted across 3 Texas regions over a 17-month period …

A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial Of Il-7 In Critically Ill Patients With Covid-19, Manu Shankar-Hari, Bruno Francois, Kenneth E Remy, Cristina Gutierrez, Stephen Pastores, Thomas Daix, Robin Jeannet, Jane Blood, Andrew H Walton, Reinaldo Salomao, Georg Auzinger, David Striker, Robert S Martin, Nitin J Anand, James Bosanquet, Teresa Blood, Scott Brakenridge, Lyle L Moldawer, Vidula Vachharajani, Cassian Yee, Felipe Dal-Pizzol, Michel Morre, Frederique Berbille, Marcel Van Den Brink, Richard Hotchkiss

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Background: Lymphopenia and failure of lymphocytes to mount an early IFN-γ response correlate with increased mortality in COVID-19. Given the essential role of CD4 helper and CD8 cytotoxic cells in eliminating viral pathogens, this profound loss in lymphocytes may impair patients' ability to eliminate the virus. IL-7 is a pleiotropic cytokine that is obligatory for lymphocyte survival and optimal function.

Methods: We conducted a prospective, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of CYT107, recombinant human IL-7, in 109 critically ill, patients with lymphopenia who have COVID-19. The primary endpoint was to assess CYT107's effect on lymphocyte recovery with secondary clinical endpoints including …

Examining Health Insurance And Non-Medical Challenges Among Vietnamese Americans In Texas During The Covid-19 Pandemic, Alexander Le, Saba Siddiqi, Celine Nguyen, Ben King, Paul Gerardo Yeh, Jannette Diep, Lauren Gilbert, Bich-May Nguyen

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

When COVID-19 data on Asian Americans are available, they are frequently aggregated, concealing community-specific concerns. Consequently, there is limited COVID-19 literature on Vietnamese Americans. In this study, we investigated the association between health insurance coverage and non-medical challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic, in Vietnamese Americans in Texas. The NIH Community Engagement Alliance (CEAL) Common Survey 2 was administered electronically in English and Vietnamese and contained 23 questions about non-medical drivers of health, COVID-19 vaccination, and research participation. Vietnamese American adults in Texas were recruited between September 2021 and March 2022 via partnerships with community organizations. Responses were compared and analyzed …

Decriminalizing Disease: A Health Justice Approach To Infectious Diseases And Criminal Law, Sean E. Bland

Arkansas Law Review

Infectious diseases, also called communicable diseases, are largely a public health issue and should not be criminalized. This Article seeks to re-frame the discussion around the legal framework for infectious diseases in a way that moves beyond a punishment mindset and toward a health justice mindset. The focus in this Article is on health justice rather than traditional understandings of public health, defined as the science and practice of improving the health of people and their communities. The Article makes three novel contributions. First, it applies a health justice framework to the critique of infectious disease criminalization. Second, the Article …

What Factors Influenced Covid-19 Vaccine Hesitancy? Evidence From Social Media, Huseyin Zeyd Koytak

Population Health Research Brief Series

Vaccine hesitancy is one of the most significant threats to global public health efforts. Despite the rapid development and deployment of effective vaccines, resistance to vaccination has persisted in many communities, undermining collective immunity and prolonging health crises, including most recently the COVID-19 pandemic. This brief summarizes findings from a study that used data from over 50 million tweets (later rebranded as X) from 2020 to 2022 to investigate the patterns, justifications, and socioeconomic roots of vaccine hesitancy in the United States. The authors find that Twitter users in states with lower levels of education, higher poverty and unemployment rates, …

Dissecting The Binding Affinity Of Anti-Sars-Cov-2 Compounds To Human Transmembrane Protease, Serine 2: A Computational Study, Yue-Hui Shi, Jian-Xin Shen, Yan Tao, Yuan-Ling Xia, Zhi-Bi Zhang, Yun-Xin Fu, Ke-Qin Zhang, Shu-Qun Liu

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

The human transmembrane protease, serine 2 (TMPRSS2), essential for SARS-CoV-2 entry, is a key antiviral target. Here, we computationally profiled the TMPRSS2-binding affinities of 15 antiviral compounds. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations for the docked complexes revealed that three compounds exited the substrate-binding cavity (SBC), suggesting noncompetitive inhibition. Of the remaining compounds, five charged ones exhibited reduced binding stability due to competing electrostatic interactions and increased solvent exposure, while seven neutral compounds showed stronger binding affinity driven by van der Waals (vdW) interactions compensating for unfavorable electrostatic effects (including electrostatic interactions and desolvation penalties). Positive and negative hotspot residues were identified …

Lessons Learned From The Covid-19 Pandemic Crisis Management In The Gaza Strip: A Qualitative Study., Belal Aljamal

Journal of the Arab American University مجلة الجامعة العربية الامريكية للبحوث

Aims of the study: The main aim of this study was to discover the lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic crisis management from health policymakers' perspective in the Gaza Strip. Methods: The researcher used a qualitative design, targeting 25health policymakers using a purposeful sampling technique and face-to-face semi-structured interviews to collect data. To analyze the interview data, the directed qualitative content analysis approach was used.

Results: All interviewees agreed that the Palestinian Ministry of Health (MoH) managed the COVID-19pandemic well despite the insufficient resources and lack of experience. More specifically, the average of most participants’ assessments of Palestinian MoH “Preparedness” …

A Regularized Bayesian Dirichlet-Multinomial Regression Model For Integrating Single-Cell-Level Omics And Patient-Level Clinical Study Data, Yanghong Guo, Lei Yu, Lei Guo, Lin Xu, Qiwei Li

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

The abundance of various cell types can vary significantly among patients with varying phenotypes and even those with the same phenotype. Recent scientific advancements provide mounting evidence that other clinical variables, such as age, gender, and lifestyle habits, can also influence the abundance of certain cell types. However, current methods for integrating single-cell-level omics data with clinical variables are inadequate. In this study, we propose a regularized Bayesian Dirichlet-multinomial regression framework to investigate the relationship between single-cell RNA sequencing data and patient-level clinical data. Additionally, the model employs a novel hierarchical tree structure to identify such relationships at different cell-type …

Covid-19 Vaccine Hesitancy Among Black Women In The Us, Brittany C Slatton, Farrah G Cambrice, Serwaa S Omowale

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

IMPORTANCE: COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among Black women is a critical public health concern, potentially exacerbating existing health disparities and impacting community-wide vaccination efforts.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the factors associated with COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among Black women in the US and identify the specific concerns and experiences shaping hesitant attitudes toward vaccination.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Qualitative study using in-depth, semistructured interviews conducted virtually between June and November 2021. Thematic analysis was used to identify key themes from the interview data. Participants were recruited through social media platforms and word-of-mouth referrals from various regions of the US. Interviews were conducted remotely …

Covid-19 Taking Aim At The Heart Of Public Education, Jeremy James Pyle

Theses, Dissertations and Capstones

The COVID-19 pandemic, distinguished by both its duration and widespread impact, stands apart from other crises typically faced by schools, such as natural disasters, school violence, or isolated traumatic incidents. Unlike these shorter-term events, the pandemic fundamentally altered the educational landscape, reshaping both school climate and instructional practices. This non-experimental, descriptive study employed a phenomenological research approach to examine the lived experiences of teachers during and after the pandemic. The central aim was to explore how pandemic-related stressors influenced teachers’ decisions to remain in or leave the profession, as well as to identify the supports educators perceived as necessary for …

A Teacher Preparation Program's Stakeholders' Perceptions Since Campus Closure Due To Covid-19, Laurie J. Mccormick

Theses, Dissertations and Capstones

COVID-19 closed colleges and forced faculty and students to learn a new way of teaching and learning. Like most institutions, Marshall University’s College of Education and Professional Development struggled to provide the practicum experience required for teacher preparation when most public schools shifted to remote learning. This qualitative study investigated the reactions of, and ongoing impact on, a university’s college of education’s administrators, faculty, undergraduates, the institution’s instructional designers, and the Counseling Center’s director when the campus closed spring of 2020 due to the pandemic. Initial and ongoing challenges faced, and strategies implemented were categorized by the four themes that …

Association Between Lifetime Interpersonal Violence And Post– Covid-19 Condition Among Women In Kentucky, 2020-2022, Ayşe Güler, Heather M. Bush, Katie Schill, Nurlan Kussainov, Ann L. Coker

Biostatistics Faculty Publications

Objective: The COVID-19 pandemic increased the risk of interpersonal violence. We investigated the association between lifetime interpersonal violence experience and risk of post–COVID-19 condition (the persistence of symptoms of COVID-19 and severity of health problems associated with COVID-19 that last a few weeks, months, or years) among women with lifetime interpersonal violence experience.   Methods: Women participants aged ≥18 years in Kentucky’s Wellness, Health & You—COVID-19 study completed online quantitative surveys about the impacts of the pandemic, developing COVID-19, and symptoms of post–COVID-19 condition. We conducted cross-sectional analyses estimating rate ratios of developing COVID-19 and symptoms of post–COVID-19 condition during the …

Risk Of Post-Acute Symptoms Among Adults: A Comparison Study Of Severe Covid-19, Pneumonia, And Influenza, Caroline M Schaefer, Trudy Millard Krause, George L Delclos, Raymond S Greenberg

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Background: A retrospective cohort study was undertaken to assess the relationship between initial disease severity of COVID-19 and the risk of post-acute symptoms. The COVID-19 cohort was compared against influenza and pneumonia cohorts to assess whether risk of post-acute symptoms differed.

Methods: Administrative health claims data were obtained for commercially insured and Medicare Advantage covered adults (≥ 18 years) with symptomatic laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 diagnosed in 2020 (n=121,205), and similar cohorts of influenza (n=20,844) and pneumonia (n=29,052) patients diagnosed prior to the pandemic. Post-acute symptoms were assessed at four weeks, three and six months following initial diagnosis.

Results: Among the patients …

Protective Effects Of Psychiatric Medications Against Covid-19 Mortality Before Vaccines, Rodrigo Machado-Vieira, Trudy M Krause, Gregory Jones, Antonio L Teixeira, Lokesh R Shahani, Scott D Lane, Jair C Soares, Chau N Truong

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

The coronavirus disease pandemic caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, which emerged in the United States in late 2019 to early 2020 and quickly escalated into a national public health crisis. Research has identified psychiatric conditions as possible risk factors associated with COVID-19 infection and symptom severity. This study aims to determine whether specific classes of psychiatric medications could reduce the likelihood of infection and alleviate the severity of the disease. The objective of this study is to investigate the relationship between neuropsychiatric medication usage and COVID-19 outcomes before the widespread utilization of COVID-19 vaccines. This cross-sectional study used Optum's de-identified …

Association Between Trust In The Incumbent President And Covid-19 Preventive Behaviors During The Pandemic In Four Latin American Countries, Juliana Mejía-Grueso, Gloria Isabel Niño-Cruz, Javiera Alarcón-Aguilar, Pablo Roa-Urrutia, Sergio Mauricio Moreno-López, Adriano Akira Ferreira Hino, Alexandre Augusto De Paula Da Silva, Fernando López, Deborah Salvo, Rodrigo Siqueira Reis, Guillermo Rosas, Andrea Ramírez-Varela

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

The COVID-19 pandemic revealed disparities in policy responses in Latin America. We examined the association between trust in the president and COVID-19 preventive behaviors in Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Mexico. We used data from the Collaborative COVID-19 Response Survey by the McDonnell Academy at Washington University in St. Louis (United States), from September 2020 to March 2021. Nonprobabilistic sampling included adult citizens from the four countries. Multivariate negative binomial regression models were applied. The study included 8,125 participants, with Brazil showing the lowest adherence to preventive behaviors (65.5%). Increased adoption of preventive behaviors was linked with ages 18-26 (aIRR = …

Association Of Non-Communicable Diseases With Severe Covid-19 Among People Living With And Without Diagnosed Hiv/Aids In New York State, Ravi Kumar Balu

Electronic Theses & Dissertations (2024 - present)

Background: People living with diagnosed HIV (PLWDH) have a higher chance of co-infections and co-morbidities than the general population. When SARS-CoV-2 was first reported in China in December 2019 and later declared a pandemic, it was speculated that PLWDH might be more prone to SARS-CoV-2 infection and severe disease outcomes given their increased vulnerability to other respiratory infections like influenza, pneumococcal pneumonia and tuberculosis. However, several facets of COVID-19 disease in PLWDH are incompletely understood, including whether non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are strong risk factors for severe disease outcomes and death as they are in the general population.

Methods: The data …

Early, Standardised, And Precise Treatment Of Copd Exacerbations And Covid-19, Sanjay Ramakrishnan

Theses: Doctorates and Masters

Background: Background Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a common chronic condition causing significant morbidity and mortality. Patients with COPD report sudden episodes of deteriorating respiratory symptoms called exacerbations, often presumed to be precipitated by infections. COPD is in the top 5 causes of death globally. COPD exacerbations drive a large proportion of these deaths. Despite this, there is no standardised model of care for the sickest patients who need hospitalisations for exacerbations. Meanwhile, treatment for COPD exacerbations continues to be guided by symptoms, instead of underlying biology. Most patients are treated with unnecessary and harmful systemic corticosteroids. During the …

Metadata Makes Big Data Useful For Ai/Ml-Ready, Equitable Pandemic Response, Sudarshan Anand, Miae Lee, Seshadri S. Vasan

Research outputs 2022 to 2026

While genomic data helps understand the pathogen and its evolution, patient metadata is critical to get the host side of the picture, so that the pandemic response is effective and equitable.

Clinical Relevance: We highlight the importance of patient stratification and metadata to help develop diagnostics, therapies and vaccines as the pathogen (virus) evolves.

Understanding The Impact Of The Care Connect Washington Program, Hannah Cohen-Cline, Dan Fish, Taylor Doren, Abby Bush

Articles, Abstracts, and Reports

No abstract provided.

Double-Blind Randomised Trial Of Saline Solution For Gargling And Nasal Rinsing In Sars-Cov-2 Infection, Sebastian R Espinoza, Lexton Trauffler, Amir Shamshirsaz, Alireza Shamshirsaz, Andres Espinoza, Jimmy Espinoza, Alice O'Brien

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Background: Previous studies have shown that hypertonic saline nasal irrigation and gargling reduced the duration of symptoms in upper respiratory infections caused by coronavirus. This study aims to investigate the effects of two saline regimens on symptoms associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2).

Methods: Between 2020 and 2022, individuals aged 18-65 years who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were randomly assigned to either low- or high-saline regimens for 14 days. The low-saline solutions contained 2.13 g of salt dissolved in eight ounces of warm water, while the high-saline solution contained six grams of …

Fda Greenlights Early-Stage Trial For Investigational Long Covid Treatment: Phase Ii Evaluation Pending, Arin Wade, Maria Nguyen, Allie Honigford, Kennedy Kosikowski, Minhwan Yang, Rebecca Willier, Joshua Honaker, Samantha Mccord, Theresa Hempleman

Pharmacy and Wellness Review

Long coronavirus disease (COVID) is a condition that affects millions of individuals worldwide. Long COVID manifests as persistent symptoms following acute COVID-19. These symptoms can include, but are not limited to, fatigue, cognitive dysfunction, and chronic inflammation often lasting for months and significantly impairing patients' quality of life. As the number of Long COVID cases continues to rise and major global health organizations begin to standardize Long COVID’s mechanisms and diagnosis, there is an increasing demand for effective treatments that can address its complex nature. While some therapies, such as metformin and hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) have shown promise in …

Priorities To Care Within The Military Health System: A Mixed Methods Study On Military Spouse Access To Care During Covid-19 On Okinawa, Elayne L. Wilson

Theses & Dissertations

Military spouses in Okinawa experienced denial of care at military treatment facilities and off base Japanese healthcare facilities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Over two years of travel restrictions further contributed to difficulties accessing healthcare while stationed on the island with their active-duty spouse. This study examined the implications of a priority-based access system through the TRICARE program implemented due to limited resources during COVID-19 and its impact on military spouses in a scarce medical resource environment. This concurrent mixed-methods research used a survey tool developed by Community First Hawaii to quantify access to healthcare and in-depth interviews to further explore …

Elevated Ambient Temperature Associated With Reduced Infectious Disease Test Positivity Rates: Retrospective Observational Analysis Of Statewide Covid-19 Testing And Weather Across California Counties., Nicholas Wing-Ping Kwok, Joshua Pevnick, Keith Feldman

Manuscripts, Articles, Book Chapters and Other Papers

BACKGROUND: From medication usage to the time of day, a number of external factors are known to alter human body temperature (BT), even in the absence of underlying pathology. In select cases, clinical guidance already suggests the consideration of clinical and demographic factors when interpreting BT, such as a decreased threshold for fever as age increases. Recent work has indicated factors impacting BT extend to environmental conditions including ambient temperature. However, the effect sizes of these relationships are often small, and it remains unclear if such relationships result in a meaningful impact on real-world health care practices.

OBJECTIVE: Temperature remains …

Covid For One: Identifying Obstacles To Self-Management Of Covid-19 For Single Adults, Linda A. Treiber, Christie Emerson, Jenna Shackleford

Faculty Articles

Given the complexities of healthcare provision, it is imperative to understand how single adults experience their interactions with medical professionals and health care organizations, manage care and treatment, and navigate the barriers encountered. This study’s purpose is to understand physical and mental health experiences in consideration of social determinants of health, barriers, and coping strategies for single adults diagnosed with COVID-19. An interpretive phenomenology study design was used with 12 individuals who were single and living alone during the COVID-19 pandemic. Semi-structured, open-ended interviews revealed important aspects of the COVID-19 illness experience. Interviews were transcribed for coding and thematic analysis. …

Genomic Analysis Of The Sars-Cov-2 Variants Circulated In The Philippines, 2020–2024, Arnie Dimaano, Kiana Dominique Carreon, Giselle Sophia Camaya, Irvin Rondolo, Jarel Elgin Tolentino

Biology Faculty Publications

Purpose

Genomic sequencing has been an invaluable tool to determine the evolution of SARS-CoV-2. In the present study, we provided a comprehensive description of the SARS-CoV-2 variants circulated in the Philippines.

Methods

The dataset from the human COVID-19 infections was acquired by downloading the sequences and their associated metadata spanning from March 2020 to April 2024. Then, we executed several filtering criteria to acquire the final dataset for the Philippine samples and performed spatial distribution analysis and phylogenetic tree construction of the reported SARS-CoV-2 sequences.

Results

A total of 16,679,203 SARS-CoV sequences were obtained, of which 17,393 (0.10 %) were …

The Learning Crisis: Three Years After Covid-19, Tomasz Gajderowicz, Maciej Jakubowski, Alec Kennedy, Christian Christrup Kjeldsen, Harry Anthony Patrinos, Rolf Strietholt

Education Reform Faculty and Graduate Students Publications

The COVID-19 pandemic caused widespread disruptions to education, with school closures affecting over one billion children. These closures, aimed at reducing virus transmission, resulted in significant learning losses, particularly in mathematics and science. Using data from TIMSS 2023, which assesses fourth and eighth-grade achievements across 71 education systems, this study analyzes the impact of school closure duration on learning outcomes. Mixed-effect models estimate deviations from pre-pandemic trends, adjusting for demographic factors. Results show a global average decline of 0.11 standard deviations (SD) in student achievement, with longer closures linked to more severe losses. The effects on low performers, girls, and …

The Meatpacking Industry Needs Stronger Worker Protections And Enhanced Oversight, India Luxton, Laura-Anne Minkoff-Zern

Center for Policy Research

Meatpacking plants are hazardous workplaces with high injury rates and poor working conditions, negatively impacting the health of the industry’s predominately immigrant and refugee workforce. The COVID-19 pandemic illuminated ongoing concerns in the industry, including the problems associated with consolidation and concentration, worker safety, and poor public health outcomes. This brief summarizes findings from a study that used data from 39 interviews with local, state, and federal officials and bureaucrats, worker advocates, and workers to analyze meatpacking policymaking and oversight during COVID-19. The authors find that a lack of industry oversight and decreased regulation contribute to unsafe environments, and injustices …

Clinical Effects Of Dexamethasone Among Patients With Sickle Cell Disease Hospitalized With Covid-19: Outcomes From A Single Academic Health System, William M. Garneau, Matthew J. Lankiewicz, Catherine R. Lesko, Ashley P. Lauriello, Kelly A. Gebo, Sophie M. Lanzkron

Department of Medicine Faculty Papers

BACKGROUND: Dexamethasone is a steroid used in the treatment of hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19. However, the effect of dexamethasone in patients with SCD remains unclear given that steroids may precipitate vaso-occlusive crisis (VOC) in patients with SCD.

METHODS AND FINDINGS: We performed a retrospective analysis of patients with SCD who were hospitalized at Johns Hopkins Health System between June 1, 2020 and June 26, 2022. We reviewed individual charts to assess severity of illness and eligibility for dexamethasone treatment. The exposure of interest was treatment with dexamethasone. Outcomes of interest included incident VTE, length of hospital stay, ICU admission, …

Political Polarization Harms Public Health, Shana Kushner Gadarian, Jay Van Bavel, Kai Ruggeri, Eric Knowles

Population Health Research Brief Series

Political polarization poses considerable risks to well-being. Both ideological polarization (“extremification” of policy positions and ideological orientations) and affective polarization (out-party hate) have increased over the past several decades with detrimental effects on public health. This brief summarizes the impacts of political polarization on public health in the U.S., highlighting the COVID-19 pandemic as a case study on the health risks of polarization. The authors show that, in the United States, one of the strongest predictors of COVID-19 prevention behaviors, such as social distancing and vaccination, was political partisanship. Gaps in these behaviors between Republicans and Democrats increased over the …

Predicting Severe Covid-19 Using Readily Available Admission Indicators: Spo2/Fio2 Ratio, Comorbidity Index, And Gender, Luan D. Vu, Rebecca C. Christofferson, Hollis R. O’Neal, Diana Hamer, Anh T.Q. Phan, Katie M. Vance, E. A. Turner, Avinash Kumar, Ibrahim Musa Yola, Natalie Lim, Beverly Ogden, Stephania A. Cormier

School of Medicine Faculty Publications

The focus of this study was to identify risk factors for severe and critical COVID-19, evaluate local respiratory immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection, and develop a prognostic tool for COVID-19 severity using accessible early indicators. Using nasopharyngeal swab samples from hospitalized patients with COVID-19 of varying severity during the first wave of the pandemic from March to May 2020 in Louisiana, we evaluated the association between COVID-19 severity and viral load, respiratory immune mediators, and demographic/clinical factors. We found that the SpO2/FiO2 ratio at triage, total comorbidity burden (represented by Charlson Comorbidity Index), and gender were significantly associated with COVID-19 …