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2023

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Articles 25501 - 25530 of 27433

Full-Text Articles in Medicine and Health Sciences

Role Of Dpy30 In The Epigenetic Regulation Of Odontoblast Differentiation In Vitro, Namrata Landge Rana Jan 2023

Role Of Dpy30 In The Epigenetic Regulation Of Odontoblast Differentiation In Vitro, Namrata Landge Rana

All ETDs from UAB

Purpose: Dentin is produced from odontoblasts, derived from human Dental Pulp Cells (hDPCs), which are essential for dentin formation, remodeling, and mineral hemostasis. Epigenetic mechanisms are believed to be involved in odontoblast differentiation and function, and H3K4 methylation is associated with gene activation which is fundamental to histone-based epigenetics. The SET1/MLL complexes are mammals' major histone H3K4 methylation enzymes. DPY30 is a core subunit of SET1/MII complexes, mammalian's major histone H3K4 methyltransferases. It plays an important role in regulating fundamental processes including the determination of cell lineage, growth, and differentiation. Thus, histone-based epigenetic mechanisms are involved in odontoblast differentiation and …

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Molecular Determinants Of Retroviral Gag Targeting To The Plasma Membrane For Assembly, Dominik Herrmann Jan 2023

Molecular Determinants Of Retroviral Gag Targeting To The Plasma Membrane For Assembly, Dominik Herrmann

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Human T-cell leukemia virus 1 (HTLV-1) was the first oncogenic human retrovirus to be discovered. Several serious diseases have been linked to HTLV-1 infection, such as Adult T-cell leukemia (ATL) and HTLV-1 associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). Between 10-20 million people are infected with HTLV-1 making it a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. A comprehensive understanding of the factors that govern retroviral replication precludes the development of efficient antiretroviral therapies (ARTs). In the example of HIV-1, atomic level structural data was paramount to developing and improving upon many of the ARTs used today, underscoring the need for structure …

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Early Life Stress And Endothelin Receptor Type A: Separate Roles In Mediating Colitis, Rachel Q. Muir Jan 2023

Early Life Stress And Endothelin Receptor Type A: Separate Roles In Mediating Colitis, Rachel Q. Muir

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Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) results from the interplay of genetic susceptibility, environmental influences, the microbiota, and aberrant immune responses. Despite the fact that over 200 genetic susceptibility loci have been identified, the genetic contribution to disease onset is believed to be less than 50%. Environmental factors have arisen as key drivers of disease. Early life stress (ELS) is an understudied environmental trigger linked to IBD susceptibility. Utilizing 2 separate models of ELS, we show that ELS results in diminished colonic corticosterone and prolonged intestinal inflammation upon colitogenic insult. ELS-exposed animals consistently demonstrated high levels of colonic Tnf, concurrently with decreased …

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Sex-Stratified Genetic Analysis Of Gout And Comorbidities, Nicholas Andrew Sumpter Jan 2023

Sex-Stratified Genetic Analysis Of Gout And Comorbidities, Nicholas Andrew Sumpter

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Gout is a common inflammatory arthritis that is increasing in prevalence globally. It has clear sex differences, being more common among men, though comorbidities appear to be more common among women. It also varies in prevalence between populations, driven by a combination of genetic and socioeconomic factors. Genetic studies have identified gout-associated genetic variants, several of which are shared between different populations. Here, I combined gout-associated genetic variants into a gout polygenic risk score. This score was then used to elucidate the genetic underpinning of gout severity and presence of comorbidities, comparing its effects in different sexes and populations. I …

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Aberrant Signal Transduction Of Neuronal Injury: Trauma And Toxicology, Alan Umfress Jan 2023

Aberrant Signal Transduction Of Neuronal Injury: Trauma And Toxicology, Alan Umfress

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Neurological injuries occur in epidemic proportions worldwide. Neuronal injuries are events resulting in damage to the central nervous system (CNS) that impair neurological function. Subsequent impairments in neuronal function can be rapid, existing immediately after injury, or progressive and chronic impairments that persist for the lifetime of the survivor. CNS injury constitutes a broad class of environmental and pathophysiological insults ranging from blunt-force trauma to the brain or spinal cord, to acute ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes, and insults resultant from neurotoxic agents. While divergent in initial cause, many of these insults share underlying pathophysiological outcomes including excitotoxic cell signaling, neuroinflammation, …

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Mechanisms Of Simulated-Spinal Manipulative Therapy In Animal Models Of Low Back Pain, Carla Rigo Lima Jan 2023

Mechanisms Of Simulated-Spinal Manipulative Therapy In Animal Models Of Low Back Pain, Carla Rigo Lima

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Low back pain (LBP), a condition characterized by pain experienced between the 12th rib margin and gluteal folds, is a prevalent health problem that affects an ever-increasing population worldwide. First-line treatment for LBP often involves non-pharmacological approaches, including spinal manipulative therapy (SMT), which has demonstrated mild-to-moderate clinical efficacy. However, despite its therapeutic benefits, the physiological mechanisms underlying the analgesic effects of SMT in LBP are still not well understood. Recent evidence suggests that sensitization of peripheral and central nervous system structures contribute to the progression and maintenance of LBP with inflammatory cytokines, reactive glial cells, and/or aberrant muscle spindle activity …

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Strategies For Her2 Targeted Pet Imaging, Maxwell Adams Ducharme Jan 2023

Strategies For Her2 Targeted Pet Imaging, Maxwell Adams Ducharme

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Breast cancer is one of the most common and deadly cancers diagnosed in women each year. The HER2-positive subtype of breast cancer is associated with poor prognosis and lower progression-free survival. Early identification of HER2 expression is extremely important for the effective treatment of the disease. Current methods to diagnose HER2-positive breast cancer involve invasive biopsies to semi-quantitatively determine the amount of HER2 expression. However, many lesions are often unavailable for biopsy due to their location and there may be variable HER2 expression between the primary tumor and metastasis. Positron emission tomography (PET) can give a full-body, non-invasive evaluation of …

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Investigating Regulatory Mechanisms Of Transcription By Rna Polymerase I, Abigail Kate Huffines Jan 2023

Investigating Regulatory Mechanisms Of Transcription By Rna Polymerase I, Abigail Kate Huffines

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There are at least three eukaryotic RNA polymerases (Pols), Pols I, II, and III. These Pols are essential for transcription, where RNA is synthesized from various DNA templates. While transcription has been well-studied for decades, there are still many questions that remain unanswered about how this process is regulated for each of the three Pols. Transcription is highly regulated and complex, therefore, many different mechanisms exist to tightly control it in the cell. Some of these mechanisms include regulation by transcription factors and co-transcriptional RNA processing. While these regulatory mechanisms are of great interest, they have not yet been fully …

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Biochemical Characterization Of Rna Polymerases I, Ii, And Iii And Its Therapeutic Implications, Ruth Qian Jacobs Jan 2023

Biochemical Characterization Of Rna Polymerases I, Ii, And Iii And Its Therapeutic Implications, Ruth Qian Jacobs

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In contrast to Bacteria and Archaea that express a single DNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RNAP), eukaryotes express at least three structurally distinct, nuclear, DNA-dependent RNA polymerases (Pols I, II, and III) that are responsible for synthesizing all the genome-encoded RNA required by the cell. Despite the discovery of the Pols over 50 years ago, there remains a knowledge gap concerning their enzymatic properties. Over the course of evolution, we know that Pols I, II, and III have diverged in structure and function. They share a 10-subunit core and are each responsible for transcribing unique genetic loci. What remains to be understood …

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Neural-Glial-Vascular Interactions In Human Outer Retina, Deepayan Kar Jan 2023

Neural-Glial-Vascular Interactions In Human Outer Retina, Deepayan Kar

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The outer retinal metabolic ecosystem is a complex interplay among photoreceptors, RPE and blood supply from the retinal and choroidal microcirculation. Breakdown of any component of this ecosystem has detrimental effects and can lead to cellular dysfunction. For example, in age-related macular degeneration a major cause of vision loss in older adults, breakdown of this metabolic unit has severe structural and functional implications. Thus, every feature and component of this ecosystem seems to be optimized to protect non-replicating, terminally differentiated cells from being damaged. Remarkably, much of the cellular and subcellular organization of this system is available for observation in …

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Neutrophil Heterogeneity And Alternative Granulopoiesis In Chronic Inflammatory Conditions, Ashley N. Connelly Jan 2023

Neutrophil Heterogeneity And Alternative Granulopoiesis In Chronic Inflammatory Conditions, Ashley N. Connelly

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Neutrophils, the most abundant type of circulating leukocyte, represent a heterogeneous population with distinct roles in immune regulation and disease pathogenesis. A major obstacle to our understanding of neutrophil biology is that neutrophils are readily activated during preparation. The lack of standardized methodology for neutrophil characterization makes the comparison of results across studies challenging. Here we provide a careful comparison of eight characterization methods and present a novel, optimized protocol for the characterization of whole blood neutrophils minimizing activationinduced phenotypic alterations during processing. Despite successful virological control, HIV-1-infected individuals maintain an increased risk of life-threatening comorbidities including liver, cardiovascular, and …

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Contributions Of Off-Season Training And Food Security Status On Body Composition And Performance In Collegiate Football Players, Kathryn Lee Stowers Jan 2023

Contributions Of Off-Season Training And Food Security Status On Body Composition And Performance In Collegiate Football Players, Kathryn Lee Stowers

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Body composition measurements are collected periodically in the collegiate athletic setting to evaluate health and predict athletic performance of individual athletes. However, the effects of remote training and food insecurity on body composition have yet to be fully investigated in this population. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the influence of remote training and food security status on body composition and performance changes during off-season training. Aims 1 and 2 focus specifically on how factors affect body composition changes in collegiate football players during off-season training. Data were collected from routine body composition testing and food security screening …

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Induction Of Antibiotic Activity Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus In Small Molecules Through Zinc Activation, Rachel Michaela Andrews Jan 2023

Induction Of Antibiotic Activity Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus In Small Molecules Through Zinc Activation, Rachel Michaela Andrews

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Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a serious human pathogen with a staggering potential for multi-drug resistance. Because of this, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization monitor the spread of MRSA and encourage antibiotic development efforts targeting this pathogen. Despite this, few antibiotics have been developed and brought to market in recent decades. To continue treating infections caused by this organism, we must identify novel antibiotic molecules with different mechanisms of action from known antibiotics. Bacterial copper-dependent inhibitors (CDIs), molecules that become antibacterial in the presence of copper (Cu), have been studied as a novel …

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Comparing Volumetric Wear Of Lithium Disilicate Against Different Ceramics And Enamel Antagonist An In-Vitro Study, Krisha Shah Jan 2023

Comparing Volumetric Wear Of Lithium Disilicate Against Different Ceramics And Enamel Antagonist An In-Vitro Study, Krisha Shah

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Background: In patients with restored dentitions, it is possible for crowns on opposing teeth to gradually wear each other through chewing and bruxism. Therefore, the wear of restorative materials used for dental crowns is an important mechanical property for their long-term clinical success. Lithium disilicate is a widely used dental ceramic due to its strength, machinability, and translucency. Due to the rising use of ceramic restorations, a comparison of the wear resistance of lithium disilicate against different ceramic crown materials is useful for the clinician when selecting a crown material to oppose an existing lithium disilicate crown. Objective: To compare …

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Effect Of Different Supporting Die Materials And Crown Thicknesses On The Fracture Load Of Monolithic 3y-Tzp Zirconia And Lithium Disilicate Crowns, Akram Mohamed Mohamed Gad Sayed Ahmed Jan 2023

Effect Of Different Supporting Die Materials And Crown Thicknesses On The Fracture Load Of Monolithic 3y-Tzp Zirconia And Lithium Disilicate Crowns, Akram Mohamed Mohamed Gad Sayed Ahmed

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Background: Conventionally, the strength of dental materials used for fixed restorations is measured using specimens of simplified geometry (i.e bars or discs). There is value in measuring the strength of these materials in their anatomic geometry (i.e crowns) under clinically relevant loading conditions. One advantage of performing the so-called crown fracture test is that the material may benefit from its ability to be strengthened by its bond to a tooth-mimicking die. When performing a crown fracture test, the ideal die material is natural tooth structure. However, the variability in natural tooth anatomy and microstructure makes the use of a standardized, …

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Uncovering The Role Of Spt5 In Rna Polymerase I Transcription Through Targeted Protein Degradation Via The Auxin Inducible Degron System In Saccharomyces Cerevisiae, Nathan Bellis Jan 2023

Uncovering The Role Of Spt5 In Rna Polymerase I Transcription Through Targeted Protein Degradation Via The Auxin Inducible Degron System In Saccharomyces Cerevisiae, Nathan Bellis

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RNA Polymerases are the molecular machines responsible for the synthesis of RNA from the DNA template. The presence of these machines is an absolute requirement for the function and replication of all cellular organisms. In eukaryotic organisms, there are a minimum of three RNA polymerases (Pols I, II, II). Despite shared subunits and homology, these three protein complexes are functionally distinct, with many unique sub-units and additional trans-acting factors. Pol I is responsible for the synthesis of three of the four ribosomal RNA species which is the first and rate limiting step of ribosome biogenesis. Pol I synthesizes the majority …

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Characterizing A Unique Oprm1 Expressing Neuronal Population In The Rat Nucleus Accumbens, Emma Andraka Jan 2023

Characterizing A Unique Oprm1 Expressing Neuronal Population In The Rat Nucleus Accumbens, Emma Andraka

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Opioid-related overdose deaths have increased drastically in the past three decades, and especially since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, due to the addictive, analgesic, and euphoric properties of the drugs. To produce these effects, opioids bind to the mu opioid receptor (MOR) in GABAergic neurons. The MOR is encoded by the Oprm1 gene and is expressed in multiple brain regions that regulate reward and motivation, such as the nucleus accumbens (NAc). Previous studies of Oprm1 knockdown in medium spiny neurons (MSNs) of the mouse NAc have shown that these neuronal populations are involved in reinforcing reward-context pairing as well …

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Short Root Anomaly: Prevalence, Genetics, And Its Effect In Orthodontic Treatment, Lauren Sharp Jan 2023

Short Root Anomaly: Prevalence, Genetics, And Its Effect In Orthodontic Treatment, Lauren Sharp

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Short root anomaly (SRA) is a poorly understood developmental defect of root formation. Patients with this condition have short roots with rounded apexes and significantly reduced root to crown (R/C) ratios1, which can compromise dental care and may increase the risk of root resorption during tooth movement. SRA prevalence ranges from 1-10% but has not been studied in many ethnic populations. Furthermore, its genetic basis is undetermined. Our goals were to determine the prevalence of SRA among various ethnicities, identify genetic variations contributing to its phenotype, and evaluate how SRA can affect the outcome of orthodontic treatment. This study found …

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Nasal Septum Deviation In Patients With Or Without Impacted Canines, Naurine Shah Jan 2023

Nasal Septum Deviation In Patients With Or Without Impacted Canines, Naurine Shah

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There has been a recent rise in interest for studying the relationship between orthodontic treatment and the airway. Most studies have focused on measuring the oropharyngeal airway and how it is affected by growth with or without orthodontic treatment. The Nasal Septum, a midline structure is an integral part of the anatomy of the nasopharynx. Nasal Septum Deviations (NSD) can be caused by mechanical injuries, nasal polyps, neoplasia, infections, genetic influences as well as congenital malformations. The proximity of the septum can be correlated to changes in the housing of dentition in the naso maxillary complex. Objective: We aim to …

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An Examination Of The Relationship Between Mobile Apps And Healthcare Outcomes: A Patient Engagement And Patient Satisfaction Perspective, Khaled Hamad Alkhalifa Jan 2023

An Examination Of The Relationship Between Mobile Apps And Healthcare Outcomes: A Patient Engagement And Patient Satisfaction Perspective, Khaled Hamad Alkhalifa

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Background: Mobile apps are rapidly becoming an essential tool for hospitals to be competitive in a rapidly evolving healthcare market driven by patient expectations. The effectiveness of mobile apps is not fully understood, and more research needs to be done to evaluate their impact on patient satisfaction. More specifically, the role of patient engagement in this relationship needs to be investigated, given the rapid improvement in health behavior-changing mobile apps.Objective: This study aimed to examine (1) whether hospitals providing mobile apps are associated with higher patient satisfaction and patient engagement scores, (2) whether mobile app usability impacts this relationship, and …

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Crucial Role Of T Follicular Helper Cell-Derived Ifn-Γ In Lung Resident Memory B Cell Responses, Nicole Michelle Arroyo-Diaz Jan 2023

Crucial Role Of T Follicular Helper Cell-Derived Ifn-Γ In Lung Resident Memory B Cell Responses, Nicole Michelle Arroyo-Diaz

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T follicular helper (Tfh) cells constitute a distinct subset of CD4 T cells that reside within B cell follicles, playing an indispensable role in orchestrating the Germinal Center (GC) response. In response to polarizing environments, such as Influenza A virus infection (IAV), Tfh cells secrete effector cytokines, including IFN-γ and IL-4. Nevertheless, the specific functions of cytokine-producing Tfh cell subsets, beyond their involvement in driving class switch recombination (CSR), remain largely unexplored. Here, we demonstrate that, following IAV infection, Tfh cell cytokine production undergoes a dynamic shift, transitioning from early IFN-γ dominance to later predominance of IL-4. The initial IFN-γ …

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Chronic Circadian Disruption Increases Risk For Cardiovascular Disease, Jazmine Benjamin Jan 2023

Chronic Circadian Disruption Increases Risk For Cardiovascular Disease, Jazmine Benjamin

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Circadian disruption is a disturbance in biological timing which can occur within or between different organizational levels, ranging from molecular rhythms within specific cells to misalignment of behavioral and environmental cycles. Previous work has shown that changing the timing of food availability is sufficient to lower blood pressure and improve insulin sensitivity in prediabetic males, demonstrating the importance of timing of food intake for cardiovascular health. Findings from our group demonstrated that less than one week of mistimed feeding is sufficient to invert diurnal blood pressure rhythms, although kidney excretory rhythms and kidney function remained aligned with the light-dark cycle. …

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Novel Role For St6gal1 Sialyltransferase As A Tumor Driver In Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma, Nikita Umakant Bhalerao Jan 2023

Novel Role For St6gal1 Sialyltransferase As A Tumor Driver In Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma, Nikita Umakant Bhalerao

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ST6Gal1 sialyltransferase adds negatively charged sialic acid in an α2,6 linkage to N-glycans on glycoproteins bound for the cell surface/secretion thus altering receptor structure, function and downstream signaling pathways. ST6Gal1 is upregulated in multiple cancers, including pancreatic, and imparts cancer stem cell-like phenotype. Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a lethal malignancy with a survival rate of ~10%. Acinar to ductal metaplasia (ADM), the tumor initiation stage of PDAC, occurs in response to insults like pancreatitis, when acinar cells dedifferentiate and form ductal-like cells with stem and ductal gene upregulation. These cells, on acquiring mutations such as in KRAS gene, can …

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Temporal Trends In Tularemia Incidence In The United States From 2010 To 2020. Are Age And Sex Associated With These Changing Trends?, Carla V. Brooks Jan 2023

Temporal Trends In Tularemia Incidence In The United States From 2010 To 2020. Are Age And Sex Associated With These Changing Trends?, Carla V. Brooks

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Background: Tularemia or Rabbit Fever was discovered in 1911 in a plague-like outbreak among rodents in Tulare County, California. Tularemia in the US has expanded from rural to more metropolitan areas, which may be potentially correlated with the escalating exposure of humans to animal vectors. There has not been a recent study evaluating trends in Tularemia, especially one that has evaluated if the trends in Tularemia over time differ by demographic characteristics. Methods: This is an ecological study to evaluate the temporal trends and if trends Tularemia incidence over time differs by age and sex in the United States from …

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Understanding How Multi-Level Factors Influence Cancer Clinical Trial Enrollment Decisions By Patients Living In Higher Disadvantaged Areas, Nicole Caston Jan 2023

Understanding How Multi-Level Factors Influence Cancer Clinical Trial Enrollment Decisions By Patients Living In Higher Disadvantaged Areas, Nicole Caston

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Cancer clinical trials offer current patients with cancer new treatment and novel interventions to treat their cancer, while advancing the care of future patients. Clinical trials test new drugs against the standard of care to determine drug efficacy and safety. There are many groups of patients who are either unrepresented or underrepresented in cancer clinical trials and there is a plethora of reasons they are not represented. One underrepresented population of interest is patients with cancer who live in highly disadvantaged neighborhoods. Previous research found that when compared to patients who live in areas of lower disadvantage, patients living in …

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Towards Minimally Invasive Genetically Targeted Control Of Neural Activity Using X-Rays, Kelli Cannon Jan 2023

Towards Minimally Invasive Genetically Targeted Control Of Neural Activity Using X-Rays, Kelli Cannon

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X-genetics aims to replace visible light stimulation in optogenetics with X-radiation, offering improved bone penetration, minimal scattering, and enhanced targeting capabilities. This eliminates the need for surgical optic fiber implantation, reducing invasiveness and minimizing off-target effects. Discovering a receptor protein sensitive to X-rays or their byproducts is pivotal for advancing X-genetics.Two genetically encoded X-ray receptors (GEXRs) were investigated for X-genetics application: rhodopsin, historically associated with X-ray responses, and LITE-1, an unexpected candidate. Rhodopsin, when expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells, demonstrated robust cAMP decreases upon visible light stimulation but remained unresponsive to moderate and high-dose X-rays, suggesting it may …

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Weight Loss And Physical Activity For People With Physical Disabilities, Julianne Clina Jan 2023

Weight Loss And Physical Activity For People With Physical Disabilities, Julianne Clina

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People with physical disabilities (PWD) are at higher risk of obesity than people with-out physical disability (PWoD). For PWD, obesity presents a greater risk of secondary conditions; preventable medical, emotional, or social problems resulting directly or in-directly from an initial disabling condition. There is incomplete information about how disability-specific concerns influence obesity treatment and weight management, in part because PWD have typically not been included in this research. Additionally, while studies exist examining weight loss in PWD, a dearth of research exists examining weight loss maintenance for this population. Previously, weight control registries have been a valuable tool in gaining …

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Role Of Proteoglycan Forms Of The Type Iii Tgf-Β Receptor/Betaglycan In Tgf-Β Signaling In Ovarian Cancer Models, Alex Kwon-Bowers Choi Jan 2023

Role Of Proteoglycan Forms Of The Type Iii Tgf-Β Receptor/Betaglycan In Tgf-Β Signaling In Ovarian Cancer Models, Alex Kwon-Bowers Choi

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Proteoglycans (PG) are defined as proteins with one or more covalently bound polysaccharides called glycosaminoglycan chains (GAG). PGs can either be present on the cell surface or in the extracellular matrix to mediate cellular homeostasis in normal physiology as well as exert profound roles in diseases such as cancer. PGs can interact with a host of proteins such as growth factors through their core protein and/or their GAG chains, serving as an accessory receptor to mediate signaling by binding to the ligands and altering ligand-signaling receptor binding, defined as a co-receptor function. Developmentally and in pathologies like cancer, TGF-β signaling …

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Antimicrobial Resistance In Type Ii Diabetic Patients In Southeastern U.S., Onyebuchi Angela Elegede Jan 2023

Antimicrobial Resistance In Type Ii Diabetic Patients In Southeastern U.S., Onyebuchi Angela Elegede

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Background: In the Southern and Appalachian regions of the United States, antibiotic prescription rates surpass the national average, coinciding with a higher prevalence of Type II diabetes (DM2). Although international research has previously described the correlation between DM2 and increased risk of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) infections, comprehensive studies on this relationship are lacking in the U.S. The objective of this study was to investigate the association between AMR infections and DM2 and examine the association in two DM2 positive racial groups. This study also examined the differences in the prevalence of clindamycin resistance of methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus …

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Effects Of Light Curing Bonding Agent With Dual Cure Cement On The Retention Of Zirconia And Lithium Disilicate Crowns: An In-Vitro Study., Mariam Issa Jan 2023

Effects Of Light Curing Bonding Agent With Dual Cure Cement On The Retention Of Zirconia And Lithium Disilicate Crowns: An In-Vitro Study., Mariam Issa

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Objective: To measure and compare the bond strength of zirconia and lithium disilicate crowns bonded to human teeth (enamel and dentin) using universal adhesive with resin cement and different light curing protocols.Methods: Sixty extracted sound non carious human teeth (second premolars) were stored in formalternate solution (FormalternateTM, Concentrate, 500 mL, Canada) and the roots were notched and mounted into acrylic resin (Yates Motloid, USA). Flat surface preparation was done on the occlusal surface of the samples using model trimmer. The surface area of the specimens was measured with digital light microscopy. Samples were randomly divided into six groups of 10 …

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