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Articles 1 - 30 of 30
Full-Text Articles in Life Sciences
Oregon Aspen Project, Forest Restoration Partnership
Oregon Aspen Project, Forest Restoration Partnership
Aspen Bibliography
The Oregon Aspen Project was initiated in response to the decline of aspen groves in Oregon and throughout the Western United States, and the lack of information to guide managers interested in stewardship to enhance this resource. There were three central goals and accompanying objectives for this project which are listed below. The project accomplishments are provided below each bulleted objective
Establishment And Aesthetic Value Of Native Grass, Legume, And Forb Species For Grassland Restoration In The Northern Intermountain West, Bridget M. Atkin
Establishment And Aesthetic Value Of Native Grass, Legume, And Forb Species For Grassland Restoration In The Northern Intermountain West, Bridget M. Atkin
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Interest in the restoration of landscapes native to the Intermountain West is growing as the value of these arid ecosystems is increasingly recognized. Many landscapes within the Intermountain region have been impacted by grazing, development, recreation, and other human-caused disturbances. The complex relationships within the native plant communities of these arid landscapes need to be well-understood biologically, while considering their aesthetic contribution, if restoration efforts are to succeed. Although the use of ecologically appropriate native species is increasing in popularity, there is discontinuity between aesthetics and meaningful ecological contributions. A series of studies was designed to aid in the restoration …
Native Bunchgrass And Invasive Weed Establishment In Low Nutrient Rangeland Soils With Nitrogen And Phosphorus Manipulation, Jeffrey S. Burnham
Native Bunchgrass And Invasive Weed Establishment In Low Nutrient Rangeland Soils With Nitrogen And Phosphorus Manipulation, Jeffrey S. Burnham
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Competition between native perennial grasses and Bromus tectorum has been studied for many years. Recently, soil nutrients have been immobilized in an effort to preferentially inhibit growth of B. tectorum relative to native species. Most of this work has focused on soil N, but interactions with soil P are less studied and may be important as well. Additionally, although competitive effects and nutrient responses of several Centaurea spp. are well documented, data are lacking on the competitive effects that Centaurea virgata exerts on the establishment of native and exotic communities. A field experiment and a greenhouse experiment were conducted to …
The Status Of Dwarfed Populations Of Short-Horned Lizards (Phrynosoma Hernandesi) And Great Plains Toads (Anaxyrus Cognatus) In The San Luis Valley, Colorado, Megan E. Lahti
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
The San Luis Valley is a large valley formation in Colorado surrounded on either side by mountain ranges exceeding 4,267 m. Within the Valley, two of the 14 amphibian and reptile species are dwarfed: the short-horned lizard (Phrynosoma hernandesi) and the Great Plains toad (Anaxyrus cognatus). Since its initial reporting in 1968 and confirmation in 1981, no research further investigating this dwarfism has been conducted. I collected morphological measurements to determine the extent and patterns of dwarfism of both species. I then investigated the genetics of both species using mitochondrial DNA to determine whether they are …
Phenotypic And Genetic Characterization Of Wildland Collections Of Western And Searls Prairie Clovers For Rangeland Revegetation In The Western Usa, Kishor Bhattarai
Phenotypic And Genetic Characterization Of Wildland Collections Of Western And Searls Prairie Clovers For Rangeland Revegetation In The Western Usa, Kishor Bhattarai
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Western prairie clover [Dalea ornata (Douglas ex Hook.) Eaton & J. Wright] is a perennial legume that occurs in the northern Great Basin, Snake River Basin, and southern Columbia Plateau, whereas Searls prairie clover [Dalea searlsiae (A. Gray) Barneby], also a perennial legume, occurs in the southern Great Basin and surrounding areas. Understanding the genetic and ecotypic variation of these prairie clovers is a prerequisite for developing populations suitable for rangeland revegetation in the western USA. DNA sequences of internal transcribed spacer (ITS/5.8S) and trnK/matK were used to study the phylogeny of these species. The species were distinguished …
Pervasive Thermal Consequences Of Stream-Lake Interactions In Small Rocky Mountain Watersheds, Usa, Jessica D. Garrett
Pervasive Thermal Consequences Of Stream-Lake Interactions In Small Rocky Mountain Watersheds, Usa, Jessica D. Garrett
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Limnologists and stream ecologists acknowledge the fundamental importance of temperature for regulating many ecological, biological, chemical, and physical processes. I investigated how water temperatures were affected by hydrologic linkages between streams and lakes at various positions along surface water networks throughout several headwater basins in the Sawtooth and White Cloud Mountains of Idaho (USA). Temperatures of streams and lakes were measured for up to 27 months in seven 6 – 41 km2 watersheds, with a range of lake influence. When they were ice-free, warming in lakes resulted in dramatically warmer temperatures at lake outflows compared to inflow streams (midsummer …
Ecology And Management Of A High Elevation Southern Range Greater Sage-Grouse Population: Vegetation Manipulation, Early Chick Survival, And Hunter Motivations, Michael R. Guttery
Ecology And Management Of A High Elevation Southern Range Greater Sage-Grouse Population: Vegetation Manipulation, Early Chick Survival, And Hunter Motivations, Michael R. Guttery
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
My research provided new information concerning the management, ecology, and conservation of greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus). I report the results of an experiment using strategic intensive sheep grazing to enhance the quality of greater sage-grouse brood-rearing habitat. Although forb cover, an important component of brood-rearing habitat, responded positively to the grazing treatment, the response of other habitat variables was suppressed because the plots were not protected from domestic and wild herbivores during the years following the treatments. Measurements taken in grazing exclosures confirmed that herbivory by both large and small animals had significant impacts on vegetation. However, despite …
Evaluation Of Semiochemical Strategies For The Protection Of Whitebark Pine Stands Against Mountain Pine Beetle Attack Within The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, Greta Katherine Schen-Langenheim
Evaluation Of Semiochemical Strategies For The Protection Of Whitebark Pine Stands Against Mountain Pine Beetle Attack Within The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, Greta Katherine Schen-Langenheim
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
High-dose verbenone, verbenone plus nonhost volatiles (NHVs), and both semiochemicals in combination with aggregant-baited funnel traps were tested for stand- level protection against mountain pine beetle attack for two consecutive years (2004-2005) at three seral high elevation whitebark pine sites in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. In 2004, two 0.25-hectare treatments comprised of 25 high-dose verbenone pouches or verbenone pouches combined with single baited funnel traps were tested in a push-pull strategy. In 2005, 25 high-dose verbenone and 25 NHV pouches, or verbenone and NHV in combination with baited funnel trap clusters were tested. In both years, treatments were compared to …
Natural History And Breeding System Of Maguire Primrose, Jacob B. Davidson
Natural History And Breeding System Of Maguire Primrose, Jacob B. Davidson
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
The goal of this thesis was to examine the breeding system and natural history of the Maguire primrose (Primula cusickiana var. maguirei). Maguire primrose is an endemic, threatened subspecies found only along a narrow corridor within Logan Canyon in northern Utah, USA. This plant displays distinct flower distyly, with clear distinction of pin and thrum morphologies (morphs). The timing of Maguire primrose flower blooms was disparate between upper and lower canyon populations, and the flowers experienced cool temperatures occasionally. I captured eight different species of flying insects visiting Maguire primrose flowers, and made 67 observations of insect visitation. …
Characterizing Ecologically Relevant Variations In Streamflow Regimes, Kiran J. Chinnayakanahalli
Characterizing Ecologically Relevant Variations In Streamflow Regimes, Kiran J. Chinnayakanahalli
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Maintaining the ecological health of streams is vital for sustainable water resources management. Streamflow is a primary factor influencing the structure and function of ecological communities. A quantitative understanding of how stream biota respond to variation in streamflow is required for stream bioassessment. This dissertation focuses on quantifying relationships between streamflow regime and stream macroinvertebrate richness and composition. The contribution comprises statistical models that predict stream macroinvertebrate class from streamflow regime and predict streamflow regime from watershed attributes, and a tool that helps derive watershed attribute variables used in these models.
The dissertation is a collection of three papers. In …
Assessing Quaking Aspen (Populus Tremuloides) Decline On Cedar Mountain In Southern Utah Using Remote Sensing And Geographic Information Systems, Chad M. Oukrop
Assessing Quaking Aspen (Populus Tremuloides) Decline On Cedar Mountain In Southern Utah Using Remote Sensing And Geographic Information Systems, Chad M. Oukrop
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) is the most widespread deciduous tree species in North America and aspen ecosystems are highly valued for multiple use, being noted for forage production, understory diversity, wildlife habitat, timber, hydrological assets, and aesthetics. However, aspen communities in the Intermountain Region of the western United States are in evident decline, with certain areas experiencing rapid mortality over the past decade. One location of special interest is the quaking aspen on Cedar Mountain in Southern Utah, USA, an isolated population in the southwestern portion of aspen's geographic range.
Lacking critical information on the location, extent, and …
Quantifying Legacy Effects Of Managed Disturbance On Sagebrush Steppe Resilience And Diversity, Julie Ripplinger
Quantifying Legacy Effects Of Managed Disturbance On Sagebrush Steppe Resilience And Diversity, Julie Ripplinger
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Land-use legacies can affect landscapes for decades to millennia. A long history of shrub management exists in the sagebrush steppe of the Intermountain West where shrub-removal treatments, a type of managed disturbance, have been implemented for over 50 years to reduce sagebrush cover. The assumption behind managed disturbances is that they will increase forage for domestic livestock and improve wildlife habitat. However, the long-term effects of managed disturbance on plant community composition and diversity are not well understood. We investigated the legacy effects of three common types of managed disturbance (chemical, fire, and mechanical treatments) on plant community diversity and …
Drivers Of Plant Population Dynamics In Three Arid To Subhumid Ecosystems, Luke J. Zachmann
Drivers Of Plant Population Dynamics In Three Arid To Subhumid Ecosystems, Luke J. Zachmann
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Understanding the relative importance of density-dependent and density-independent factors in driving population dynamics is one of the oldest challenges in ecology, and may play a critical role in predicting the effects of climate change on populations. We used long-term observational data to describe patterns in plant population regulation for 57 forb and grass species from three different ecosystems (arid desert grassland, semiarid sagebrush steppe, and subhumid mixed-grass prairie). Using a hierarchical partitioning approach, we (i) quantified the relative influence of conspecific density, heterospecific composition, and climate on temporal variation in population growth rates, and (ii) asked how the relative importance …
Seed Pool Dynamics Of A Great Basin Sagebrush Community In The Context Of Restoration, Kristen M. Pekas
Seed Pool Dynamics Of A Great Basin Sagebrush Community In The Context Of Restoration, Kristen M. Pekas
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Restoration of Great Basin sagebrush communities is often attempted without understanding the potential impacts of either restoration treatments on the seed pool or the seed pool on restoration efforts. In addition, few studies have examined seed pools of the Great Basin and the role of vegetation in structuring seed pool communities. I evaluated soil seed pool dynamics of a Great Basin sagebrush community in a restoration context.
In Chapter 1, I determined the relationship between the compositions of the seed pool and aboveground vegetation and the effect of shrubs (microhabitat effects) and perennial bunchgrass cover (community phase effects) on the …
Introduced Sport Fish And Fish Conservation In A Novel Food Web: Evidence Of Predatory Impact, Kevin Lee Landom
Introduced Sport Fish And Fish Conservation In A Novel Food Web: Evidence Of Predatory Impact, Kevin Lee Landom
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
This study addressed a fundamental question in applied ecology and conservation; what is the predatory impact of introduced piscivorous sport fish on imperiled native fish populations? More specifically, which of many introduced species and size-classes represent the greatest threats and should be targeted for control? In order to explore this important question, an integrated analysis of stable isotopes, quantified observed diet analysis, and stable isotope mass-balance models were used to quantify trophic interactions. These tools were used to construct food web models that were then compared to draw inferences regarding the relative contribution of prey fish, including rare native fish, …
Reproductive Ecology Of Astragalus Filipes, A Great Basin Restoration Legume, Kristal M. Watrous
Reproductive Ecology Of Astragalus Filipes, A Great Basin Restoration Legume, Kristal M. Watrous
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Astragalus filipes Torrey ex. A. Gray (Fabaceae) is being studied and propagated for use in rangeland restoration projects throughout the Great Basin. Restoration forbs often require sufficient pollination services for seed production and persistence in restoration sites. Knowledge of a plant's breeding biology is important in providing pollination for maximal seed set.
Reproductive output from four manual pollination treatments (autogamy, geitonogamy, xenogamy, and distant xenogamy) was examined in a common garden. Pod set, seed set, and seed germination were quantified for each of the treatments. Seed set from four wild populations was compared to that of an openly visited common …
Plastic And Genetic Determination Of Population, Community, And Ecosystem Properties In Freshwater Environments, Leigh C. Latta Iv
Plastic And Genetic Determination Of Population, Community, And Ecosystem Properties In Freshwater Environments, Leigh C. Latta Iv
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
The hierarchy of biological organization, from molecules to ecosystems, describes the relationships among various biological systems. Of particular interest is assessing how the factors that primarily determine the nature of one hierarchical level also have transcendent qualities that affect the ecology and evolution of higher hierarchical levels. The goal of this dissertation was to use a bottom-up approach to examine the transcendent effects of two factors that strongly determine the nature of their associated level of biological organization. The first, phenotypic plasticity, is a primary factor that determines the phenotype of an individual. The second factor, genetic diversity, largely determines …
The Effects Of Spruce Beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) On Fuels And Fire In Intermountain Spruce-Fir Forests, Carl Arik Jorgensen
The Effects Of Spruce Beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) On Fuels And Fire In Intermountain Spruce-Fir Forests, Carl Arik Jorgensen
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
In spruce-fir forests, there are many biotic and abiotic disturbances that can alter stand structure and composition. Many of these disturbances can produce high percentages of tree mortality at different scales. Spruce beetle has been considered a devastating disturbance agent, capable of creating high levels of mortality that will alter fuel complexes that may affect fire behavior. For comparison, stand data were gathered in endemic (near Loa and Moab, UT), epidemic (near Loa and Fairview, UT), and post-epidemic (near Salina and Loa, UT) condition classes of spruce beetle activity. Generally, fine fuels were higher during the epidemic and returned to …
Maternal Effects In Transmission Of Self-Medicative Behavior From Mother To Offspring In Sheep, Udita Sanga
Maternal Effects In Transmission Of Self-Medicative Behavior From Mother To Offspring In Sheep, Udita Sanga
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Mammals begin learning food preferences in utero and maternally mediated influences early in life help offspring develop their feeding habits. Mammals also learn by individual experience to ingest medicinal compounds such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), which attenuates the negative post-ingestive effects of tannins, a group of potentially toxic plant secondary compounds. The objective of this study was to investigate the transmission of acquired self-medicative behavior from mother to offspring using polyethylene glycol (PEG) as a medicine to relieve malaise caused by tannins. I hypothesized that: 1) mothers trained to associate the beneficial effects of PEG while consuming tannins will pass …
Evaluating Native Wheatgrasses For Restoration Of Sagebrush Steppes, Jayanti Ray Mukherjee
Evaluating Native Wheatgrasses For Restoration Of Sagebrush Steppes, Jayanti Ray Mukherjee
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Pseudoroegneria spicata and Elymus wawawaiensis are two native perennial bunchgrasses of North America's Intermountain West. Frequent drought, past overgrazing practices, subsequent weed invasions, and increased wildfire frequency have combined to severely degrade natural landscapes in the region, leading to a decline in the abundance of native vegetation. Being formerly widespread throughout the region, P. spicata is a favorite for restoration purposes in the Intermountain West. Elymus wawawaiensis, which occupies a more restricted distribution in the Intermountain West, is often used as a restoration surrogate for P. spicata. However, since most restoration sites are outside the native range of …
Comparative Ecology Of Narrowly Sympatric Horned Lizards Under Variable Climatic Conditions, Kevin V. Young
Comparative Ecology Of Narrowly Sympatric Horned Lizards Under Variable Climatic Conditions, Kevin V. Young
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
We studied the Flat-tailed Horned Lizard, Phrynosoma mcallii, and the Sonoran Horned Lizard, P. goodei, in an area of narrow sympatry near Yuma, Arizona, and found they overlapped broadly in use of available food resources, body size, and growth rates. We compared diet (Chapter 2), growth and reproduction (Chapter 3), and survivorship (Chapter 4) of P. mcallii and P. goodei during two years of drought followed by a year of higher-than-average rainfall. We predicted that P. mcallii would be more tolerant of drought conditions than its congener, since P. mcalliiis found only in an extremely arid region while …
Genomic Perspectives On Evolution In Bracken Fern, Joshua P. Der
Genomic Perspectives On Evolution In Bracken Fern, Joshua P. Der
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
The fern genus Pteridium comprises a number of closely related species distributed throughout the world. Collectively they are called bracken ferns and have historically been treated as a single species, Pteridium aquilinum. Bracken is notorious as a toxic weed that colonizes open fields and poisons livestock. Bracken is also easily cultured and has become one of the most intensively studied ferns. Bracken has been used as a model system for the study of the fern life cycle, fern gametophyte development, the pheromonal mechanism of sex determination, toxicology, invasion ecology, and climate change. This dissertation places bracken within a global …
Terrestrial Ecosystem Classification In The Rocky Mountains, Northern Utah, Antonin Kusbach
Terrestrial Ecosystem Classification In The Rocky Mountains, Northern Utah, Antonin Kusbach
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Currently, there is no comprehensive terrestrial ecosystem classification for the central Rocky Mountains of the United States. A comprehensive classification of terrestrial ecosystems in a mountainous study area in northern Utah was developed incorporating direct gradient analysis, spatial hierarchy theory, the zonal concept, and concepts of diagnostic species and fidelity, together with the biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification approach used in British Columbia, Canada.
This classification was derived from vegetation and environmental sampling of both forest and non-forest ecosystems. The SNOwpack TELemetry (SNOTEL) and The National Weather Service (NWS) Cooperative Observer Program (COOP) weather station network were used to approximate climate of …
Modeling Bark Beetle Outbreak And Fire Interactions In Western U.S. Forests And The Invasion Potential Of An Invasive Puerto Rican Frog In Hawaii Using Remote Sensing Data, Simon A. Bisrat
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
I used Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) imagery to answer two ecological questions. In the first project, I investigated the interactions between bark beetle-caused tree mortality and fire occurrence in western U.S. forests. I used remotely sensed fire data detected by MODIS satellite and bark beetle-caused tree mortality data. I tested the hypothesis that there is an increased probability of fire incidence in bark beetle-damaged forests compared to healthy forests using conditional probability modeling across the national forests of the western U.S. regardless of forest type. My results did not show a consistent pattern (increase or decrease of conditional probability of …
A Multi-Scale Evaluation Of Pygmy Rabbit Space Use In A Managed Landscape, Tammy L. Wilson
A Multi-Scale Evaluation Of Pygmy Rabbit Space Use In A Managed Landscape, Tammy L. Wilson
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Habitat selection has long been viewed as a multi-scale process. Observed species responses to resource gradients are influenced by variation at the scale of the individual, population, metapopulation, and geographic range. Understanding how species interact with habitat at multiple levels presents a complete picture of an organism and is necessary for conservation of endangered species. The main goal of this dissertation is to evaluate distribution, relative abundance, and habitat selection of a rare species, the pygmy rabbit Brachylagus idahoensis, at multiple scales in order to improve management and conservation for this species.
At the broadest scale, pygmy rabbit occurrence …
The Effect Of In-Line Lakes On Dissolved Organic Matter Dynamics In Mountain Streams, Keli J. Goodman
The Effect Of In-Line Lakes On Dissolved Organic Matter Dynamics In Mountain Streams, Keli J. Goodman
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
This research combines observation, experimentation, and modeling to evaluate the influence of lakes on dissolved organic matter (DOM) quantity, quality and export in subalpine watersheds of the Sawtooth Mountain Lake District, central Idaho.
First, I conducted an empirical study of the hydrologic and biogeochemical controls on DOM dynamics in stream-lake fluvial networks. I hypothesized that lakes would decrease temporal variability (i.e., buffer) and alter the characteristics of DOM from inflow to outflow. I tested these hypotheses by evaluating DOM temporal patterns and measuring annual export in seven-paired lake inflows and outflows. I then evaluated how ultraviolet (UV) exposure affected DOM …
Damage Agents And Condition Of Mature Aspen Stands In Montana And Northern Idaho, Brytten E. Steed, Holly S.J. Kearns
Damage Agents And Condition Of Mature Aspen Stands In Montana And Northern Idaho, Brytten E. Steed, Holly S.J. Kearns
Aspen Bibliography
No abstract provided.
Nonnative Phragmites Australis Invasion Into Utah Wetlands, Andrew Kulmatiski, Karen H. Beard, Laura A. Meyerson, Jacob R. Gibson, Karen E. Mock
Nonnative Phragmites Australis Invasion Into Utah Wetlands, Andrew Kulmatiski, Karen H. Beard, Laura A. Meyerson, Jacob R. Gibson, Karen E. Mock
Wildland Resources Faculty Publications
Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. (common reed), already one of the world’s most widespread plant species, has realized rapid range expansion in coastal wetlands of North America in the past century, but little is known about P. australis range expansion in inland wetland systems. We used genetic analyses, aerial photographs, field surveys, and a greenhouse experiment to study the extent and mechanism of nonnative P. australis invasion of Utah wetlands. We collected and genetically analyzed 39 herbarium samples across the state and 225 present-day samples from northern Utah’s major wetland complexes. All samples collected before 1993 and all samples …
Gps-‐‐Basedmeasurements Of Backcountry Visitors In Parks And Protected Areas: Examples Of Methods And Applications From Three Case Studies, A. D'Antonio, Christopher Monz, S. Lawson, P. Newman
Gps-‐‐Basedmeasurements Of Backcountry Visitors In Parks And Protected Areas: Examples Of Methods And Applications From Three Case Studies, A. D'Antonio, Christopher Monz, S. Lawson, P. Newman
Christopher Monz
No abstract provided.
Contrasting Effects Of Cattle And Wildlife On The Vegetation Development Of A Savanna Landscape Mosaic, Kari E. Veblen
Contrasting Effects Of Cattle And Wildlife On The Vegetation Development Of A Savanna Landscape Mosaic, Kari E. Veblen
Kari E. Veblen
Through their effects on plant communities, herbivores can exert strong direct and indirect effects on savanna ecosystems and have the potential to create and maintain savanna landscape heterogeneity. Throughout much of sub‐Saharan Africa, periodic creation and abandonment of livestock corrals leads to landscape mosaics of long‐term ecosystem hotspots that attract both cattle and large ungulate wildlife. The development and maintenance of vegetation in these types of hotspots may be controlled in part by herbivory. Cattle and wildlife may have different, potentially contrasting effects on plant succession and plant–plant interactions. We ask how cattle and wild herbivores affect the maintenance and …