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The Psychological Autopsy In Judicial Opinions Under Section 2035, Thomas L. Shaffer

Journal Articles

It is surprising how many cases have been litigated under Section 2035 of the Internal Revenue Code, which imposes an estate tax on inter vivos gifts in contemplation of death. It is also surprising that those hundreds of judicial opinions embody rigid perceptions of human life, and of attitudes toward death-perceptions which range from incisive to naive. They disclose a judicial system of death psychology which is detailed, systematic and (sometimes) accurate. This is an inquiry into those opinions as psychological autopsies.

The traditional judicial view of a gift in a contemplation of death case implies that the dead man …

Taxation Of Domestically Controlled Foreign Corporations: A Comparative Study Of Subpart F And Section 482, Louis M. Kauder

Villanova Law Review (1956 - )

No abstract provided.

The Liquidation-Reincorporation Device - Analysis And Proposed Solutions, Bruce D. Lombardo, Thomas C. Riley

Villanova Law Review (1956 - )

No abstract provided.

The Tax Benefit Rule, Claim Of Right Restorations, And Annual Accounting: A Cure For The Inconsistencies, John G. Corlew

Vanderbilt Law Review

The Internal Revenue Code is premised on an annual accounting concept which requires the taxpayer to count up his transactions at the end of the year and remit to the Government taxes based on the occurrences of that particular year. In theory this requires disregarding the factors of prior or subsequent taxable years, despite the irrelation to events of the tax year in question. In most instances, annual accounting poses no special problem. When applied to certain items whose tax impact transcends more than a single taxable year,however, inconsistencies and inequities may result. Two instances in which inconsistent tax treatment …

The Public Policy Limitation On Deductions From Gross Income: A Conceptual Analysis, Donald H. Gordon

Indiana Law Journal

No abstract provided.

Blocked Income Of Controlled Foreign Corporations, Herbert I. Lazerow

Indiana Law Journal

No abstract provided.

Real Property Depreciation Recapture: An Ineffectual Reform Of The Tax Laws, Charles S. Franklin

Vanderbilt Law Review

This note stems from a belief that an asymmetrical body of tax laws is a challenge to the legal profession which, by training, experience and tradition, is well situated to spur and guide reform. It is my intention to outline the story of but one section of the Internal Revenue Code: why it was proposed, what it sought to do, how it underwent modification by an unsympathetic congressional committee, and how it was finally enacted as a superficial compromise with the underlying asymmetry of our tax laws. In short, what follows is an appended bar in the organ theme entitled …

The Accumulated Earnings Tax And The Problem Of Diversification, James C. Westin

Michigan Law Review

While diversification is now considered a legitimate corporate need authorizing the accumulation of earnings and profits, the present standards of the Regulations under section 531, which, in general, test the reasonableness of corporate accumulations by the requirement of "specific, definite, and feasible plans" for use of the funds, seem too restrictive in terms of the problems of diversification as outlined above. In light of this criticism and of recent developments, the purposes of this comment are (1) to indicate the basic principles of section 531, an understanding of which is vital to corporations anticipating retention of funds for the purpose …

Joint Tenancy: The Estate Lawyer's Continuing Burden, John E. Riecker

Michigan Law Review

The discussion which follows will be divided into three major parts. First, it will be important to see why so much real and personal property remains in joint tenancy between husband and wife or in entireties tenancy. It has been almost eighteen years since Congress eliminated the necessity of holding property in this form in order to split income therefrom for income tax purposes. Is inertia the only reason for the popularity of joint ownership, or are there other reasons? Second, we shall review the familiar but false assumptions most laymen (and even a few attorneys) commonly make regarding the …

Income Tax Validity Of Invalid Migratory Divorces And The Rule Of Validation, Thomas J. Tumola

Villanova Law Review (1956 - )

No abstract provided.

"Primarily For Sale" In I.R.C Sections 1221 And 1231 Held To Mean "Principally For Sale" Rather Than "Substantially For Sale" --Malat V. Riddell (U.S. 1966), Michigan Law Review

Michigan Law Review

Sections 1221 and 1231 of the Internal Revenue Code disqualify from capital gains treatment profits derived from the sale or exchange of property "held by the taxpayer primarily for sale to customers in the ordinary course of his trade or business." In deciding whether these sections deny capital gains treatment to profits realized by real estate dealers from the sale or exchange of land, the circuit courts, while examining similar facts in relation to the same criteria, have reached divergent conclusions. Two recent decisions, Municipal Bond Corp. v. Commissioner and Malat v. Riddell, illustrate these discordant results. In Municipal …

Private Federal Tax Rulings Are Governed By Standard Of Equality And Fairness Of Internal Revenue Code, Section 7805(B)--International Business Machines Corp. V. United States, Michigan Law Review

Michigan Law Review

In a private ruling the Commissioner of Internal Revenue concluded that certain computers produced by Remington Rand, International Business Machines' sole competitor in the manufacture of that type of computer, were not subject to a previously imposed excise tax. IBM immediately requested a similar ruling concerning its identical machines. After a 2½-year delay, the Commissioner ruled adversely on IBM's request and at the same time prospectively withdrew the favorable ruling from Remington. IBM thereupon sued to recover the tax paid during the period Remington enjoyed the exemption. The Court of Claims held, one judge dissenting, that when two taxpayers …

Equitable Considerations Held Not Applicable To Defense Of Lack Of Overpayment--Dysart V. United States, Michigan Law Review

Michigan Law Review

Taxpayer treated the proceeds of a judgment recovered in 1954 as capital gain. Although the Commissioner of Internal Revenue did not object to the capital-gain treatment, he assessed a penalty tax for failure to report the judgment in a declaration of estimated income for 1954. In 1958 the regulation providing for the penalty tax was declared invalid, and taxpayer filed a timely claim for refund. Although an independent affirmative action by the Commissioner contesting the 1954 return would have been barred by the statute of limitations, the Commissioner disallowed the refund, contending that because the proceeds of the 1954 judgment …

Uninsured Casualty Losses Are Within The Scope Of I.R.C. Section 1231--E. Taylor Chewning, Michigan Law Review

Michigan Law Review

Petitioners reported profits from the sale of breeding cattle as a long-term capital gain under section 1231 of the Internal Revenue Code. In the same return, petitioners deducted from ordinary income, under section 165(c)(3), losses sustained from the destruction of their uninsured residential shrubbery. The Commissioner disallowed the casualty-loss deduction from ordinary income, ruling that the loss was subject to the netting provisions of section 1231 and that, since the sale profits exceeded the casualty losses, the loss was to be characterized as a capital loss to be offset against the capital gain. Contrary to previous federal court decisions, the …

Collateral Estoppel In Civil Tax Fraud Cases Subsequent To Criminal Conviction, Michigan Law Review

Michigan Law Review

To secure compliance with federal income tax laws, Congress has provided both criminal and civil penalties. Fines and imprisonment are imposed under section 7201 of the Internal Revenue Code if the Government can prove beyond a reasonable doubts a willful attempt to evade or defeat taxation. Section 6653(b) authorizes, as a civil sanction, a fifty per cent addition upon findings by the Commissioner of fraudulent underpayment. These findings, if challenged by the taxpayer, need only be sustained by a preponderance of the evidence. Because of the similarity between the acts condemned by sections 7201 and 6653(b), conviction under section 7201 …

Retention Of Control Over Stock Constitutes "Ownership" Under Section 1239 Of The Internal Revenue Code-Harry Trotz, Michigan Law Review

Michigan Law Review

Petitioner set up a corporation, retaining seventy-nine per cent of the stock and -distributing the remainder to a third party. The third party borrowed from petitioner, pledging his stock as security and executing an option agreement under which the petitioner could recover the stock at any time. Subsequently, the newly organized corporation purchased all the depreciable assets of petitioner's proprietorship at a price in excess of their adjusted basis; petitioner reported the difference as a capital gain. The Commissioner declared a deficiency, relying on section 1239 of the Internal Revenue Code, which treats as ordinary income the gain recognized from …

Net Operating Loss Sustained By Taxpayer Prior To Marriage Cannot Be Applied Subsequently Against Spouse's Income- Calvin V. United States, Michigan Law Review

Michigan Law Review

Prior to marriage, plaintiff-wife sustained net operating losses which she was entitled to carry over under section 172 of the Internal Revenue Code. For the year 1959, the plaintiffs filed a joint return in which they applied the wife's net operating loss carryover deduction to both of their incomes. The Commissioner allowed the loss carryover to be applied to the wife's but not to the husband's income. In a suit for refund of taxes withheld from the husband's wages, held, judgment for defendant. If a husband and wife elect to file a joint return, net operating losses sustained by …

Unexpected Disqualification Of Reorganizations Under The Internal Revenue Code By The Inadvertent Transfer Of Boot, Alden H. Smith, Jr.

Vanderbilt Law Review

It is common today to read of corporations "merging" or of one corporation "buying out" another. Many of these transactions will be "reorganizations" under section 368(a) of the Internal Revenue Code. Section 368 is the current congressional resolution of two conflicting policies of tax law. On the one hand, it is desirable to promote the free mobility of capital in order that it be used in the most economical manner. On the other hand, there is the desire to prevent shareholders from using corporate reorganizations as a means of avoiding income taxes. The most common of shareholder schemes are those …

Distributions By Charitable Organizations: Their Effect On Tax Exempt Status And Deductibility Of Donations Received, Thomas H. Belknap

Vanderbilt Law Review

The number and importance of tax exempt organizations has steadily grown in the past decade to the point where there were over 45,000 as of the beginning of 1963, as compared with 12,000 at the end of 1952. "Unquestionably, the economic life of our nation has be-come so intertwined with foundations that unless something is done about them, they will hold a dominant position in every phase of American life." This, according to the Patman Report, is because"multi-million-dollar foundations have replaced the trusts which were broken up during the Theodore Roosevelt administration." Both the Patman Report and the increased activity …

The Report Of The President's Cabinet Committee On Private Pension Plan Regulation: An Appraisal, Thomas B. Ridgley

Michigan Law Review

The growth of private employee pension plans in the American economy is astonishing. From 1953 to the end of 1964, the accumulation of assets of private pension funds has grown from 16.9 billion dollars to 75 billion dollars, with a projected accumulation of 225 billion dollars by 1980. At present, private retirement plans cover approximately 25 million workers, which is one-half of all employees in private non-farm establishments. Moreover, unions increasingly stress both the creation of pension plans where none exist and increased benefits from current plans. Thus, during the recent United Auto Workers negotiations the union sought and received …

The Solely-For-Voting-Stock Requirement In "B" Reorganizations Satisfied By Cash Payments For Fractional Shares-Mills V. Commissioner, Michigan Law Review

Michigan Law Review

The Internal Revenue Code requires recognition of gains or losses realized upon a sale or exchange of property. An exception to this general rule is found in section 354(a)(1), the basic nonrecognition provision for stock-for-stock reorganizations. This section provides that a stockholder need not recognize gains or losses "if stock or securities in a corporation a party to a reorganization are, in pursuance of the plan of reorganization, exchanged solely for stock or securities in such corporation or in another corporation a party to the reorganization." However, before section 354 can be reached, the exchange must satisfy one of the …

Commissioner May Examine Taxpayer's Records For Years Barred By Statute Of Limitations Without Proving Reasonable Suspicion Of Fraud--United States V. Powell, Michigan Law Review

Michigan Law Review

The Commissioner of Internal Revenue has power to summon witnesses and to examine records in order to ascertain the correctness of a taxpayer's return. If a summons is not obeyed or if the records sought are not produced, the Commissioner may seek enforcement by applying to the proper federal district court. Although the Commissioner's investigative powers are broad, they are not unlimited. In the absence of fraud, he must act within the confines of a three-year statute of limitations. In addition, the Code makes it abundantly clear that taxpayers may not be subjected to unnecessary examinations or investigations and that …

Section 341(D) And (E)- A Journey Into Never-Never Land, William M. Goldstein

Villanova Law Review (1956 - )

No abstract provided.

Tax Advice - A Deductible Expense, Conrad J. Desantis Jr.

Villanova Law Review (1956 - )

No abstract provided.

Federal Tax Aspects Of Non-Profit Organizations, Marcus Schoenfeld

Villanova Law Review (1956 - )

No abstract provided.

Election, Operation And Termination Of A Subchapter S Corporation, Ronald R. Hrusoff

Villanova Law Review (1956 - )

No abstract provided.

Crane's Basis: A Reappraisal Of The Crane Decision And Its Effect On The Concept Of Basis, Kenneth L. Gross

Villanova Law Review (1956 - )

No abstract provided.

Foundations And The Patman Committee Report, John E. Riecker

Michigan Law Review

It is the purpose of this article to evaluate the major points of the first, and main, installment of Congressman Patman's Report in the light of existing Internal Revenue Code provisions, Treasury regulations, and the more significant federal court decisions and Internal Revenue Service rulings. While the Report itself is more inclusive, space limitations dictate that this article be confined to section 501(c)(3) organizations-chiefly foundations, tax-exempt funds, and charitable trusts. Although the writer will strive to be objective, it is difficult to avoid some of the political gloss in which the Report is cast and impossible to discuss the ramifications …

Corporations- Allocation Of Subsidiary's Tax Benefit From Consolidated Return, Thomas B. Ridgley

Michigan Law Review

Defendant parent corporation received from its subsidiary 3,556,992 dollars in tax benefits which had accrued to the subsidiary from filing a consolidated income tax return. By agreement between parent and subsidiary, the profit-making corporation was to pay the losing corporation the savings created by the consolidated return. The working relationship of the two assured the subsidiary profits and the parent losses. Consequently, nearly all tax benefit inevitably flowed to the parent. Plaintiffs, the subsidiary's minority stockholders, sought a refunding of benefits allocated to defendant, claiming that the agreement was unfair and alleging that the defendant, as the subsidiary's majority shareholder, …

Administrative Law-Rate-Making-Authority Of Fpc To Limit Rate Of Return On Tax Reserves Resulting From Liberalized Depreciation, Harry T. Edwards

Michigan Law Review

Plaintiff, a natural gas pipeline company, filed a petition for review of a Federal Power Commission ruling in a rate proceeding under section 4(e) of the Natural Gas Act. Plaintiff argued that Congress did not intend tax deferrals arising from liberalized depreciation to be shared by producers and consumers and that, consequently, accumulated tax reserves should be included in the company's rate base at an ordinary rate of return. The FPC ruled that the petitioner could include its tax reserves in the rate base, but that the rate of return on the reserves would be limited to one and one-half …