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Articles 1 - 30 of 98
Full-Text Articles in National Security Law
Introduction: A Roadmap To The Naval War With Iran, James Kraska
Introduction: A Roadmap To The Naval War With Iran, James Kraska
International Law Studies
No abstract provided.
Rethinking The Legal Status Quo In Cyberspace To Legally Attribute State Responsibility, And Enhance Accountability And Deterrence, Dan Efrony
International Law Studies
The absence of formal legal attributions of State responsibility for malicious cyber operations reflects a strategic choice by influential States—foremost the United States and the United Kingdom—rather than doctrinal certainty. So long as States avoid creating legal rules for attribution, they entrench cyberspace as a legal gray zone and expose the limits of collective attribution as a governance mechanism. This article identifies probative and institutional impediments in the secondary rules of attribution: the effective control test is difficult to satisfy for proxy cyber operations, the lack of an authoritative standard of proof enables plausible deniability, and, absent consent, States remain …
International Law Situations: Blockade, Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
International Law Situations: Blockade, Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
International Law Studies
This Situation examines the right of belligerents to establish and enforce a blockade and the right to conduct visit and search of enemy and neutral merchant ships globally outside neutral waters.
International Law Situations: Belligerent Straits, Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
International Law Situations: Belligerent Straits, Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
International Law Studies
This Situation examines the measures that belligerents may take to regulate navigation by neutral and belligerent shipping through international straits. Iran has imposed several illegal measures on neutral shipping in the Strait of Hormuz to manage transits through the strait, to include the imposition of tolls, establishment of a prior permission regime, and closure of the strait. This Situation analyzes Iran's actions under international law.
Commander, U.S. Indo-Pacific Command, Remarks At The 2025 Military Law And Operations Conference, Samuel J. Paparo
Commander, U.S. Indo-Pacific Command, Remarks At The 2025 Military Law And Operations Conference, Samuel J. Paparo
International Law Studies
Admiral Samuel J. Paparo, Commander, U.S. Indo-Pacific Command, Remarks at the Military Law and Operations Conference, September 8, 2025
Houthi Maritime Terrorism: Severing The Iranian Lifeline, Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
Houthi Maritime Terrorism: Severing The Iranian Lifeline, Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
International Law Studies
The Houthis have carried out an unprecedented assault on commercial shipping and foreign warships operating in international waters off the Arabian Peninsula that has changed the face of maritime terrorism. These waters are a strategic corridor that facilitates international trade and the movement of naval forces from Europe and the Americas to the Middle East and Asia via the Suez Canal. As a result of the Houthi attacks, most shipping companies rerouted their vessels around Africa via the Cape of Good Hope, which adds significant costs and adversely affects the global supply chain, increasing inflation, and exacerbating food insecurity in …
Re-Envisioning Nuclear Deterrence, Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
Re-Envisioning Nuclear Deterrence, Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
International Law Studies
This article examines whether the U.S. nuclear umbrella provided to allies is currently viable and whether it is time for the United States to share nuclear weapons technology with its allies in the Asia-Pacific to counter the growing nuclear threat posed by China, North Korea, and Russia. The article discusses the current capabilities and nuclear doctrine of States possessing nuclear weapons, as well as Iran’s nascent nuclear weapons program. It then discusses the current international law and regulatory regime applicable to nuclear weapons. It analyzes the threats posed by China’s and Russia’s nuclear capabilities, and how they affect U.S. nuclear …
Newport Manual On The Law Of Naval Warfare, Second Edition, Newport Manual Expert Group
Newport Manual On The Law Of Naval Warfare, Second Edition, Newport Manual Expert Group
International Law Studies
The Newport Manual on the Law of Naval Warfare, Second Edition, is a continuing effort to restate the law of naval warfare as a purely lex lata exercise. Like the first edition of 2023, it is designed to provide a practical guide for commanders and seafarers, lawyers and officials, and educators and students. In doing so, the Manual includes developments in warfighting technologies in recent decades, which have significantly influenced the nature of war at sea. This second edition has been edited by four of the original authors following an extensive review and revision process.
Narrowing “The Gap”: Counter Gray Zone Operations, Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
Narrowing “The Gap”: Counter Gray Zone Operations, Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
International Law Studies
China is exploiting "The Gap" by conducting provocative Gray Zone operations to challenge its neighbors' sovereignty and sovereign rights, as well as their navigational rights and freedoms, in waters off their coast in the East China Sea, Taiwan Strait, and South China Sea. By engaging in malign activities that fall below the threshold of an "armed attack," China anticipates it can incrementally advance its interests without eliciting a military response from the targeted States. Diplomatic protests and third-party dispute settlement have not convinced China to halt its aggressive behavior. This article suggests States should use non-lethal counter-piracy tactics, techniques, and …
Collective Attribution In Cyberspace: A Rebranded Version Of Attribution Does Not Make It More Effective, Dan Efrony
Collective Attribution In Cyberspace: A Rebranded Version Of Attribution Does Not Make It More Effective, Dan Efrony
International Law Studies
The international community has been unsuccessful in establishing an effective legal framework for holding States accountable for cyber wrongdoing. Instead, official political attribution—collectively denouncing States for irresponsible conduct in cyberspace—has become a common substitute to encourage compliance with voluntary non-binding international norms. Since December 2017, the United States and United Kingdom, along with their closest allies, have embraced and implemented collective attributions and responses. They thereby seek to shape “rules of the road” for responsible State behavior in cyberspace and to enhance accountability and deterrence. However, these attributions rely primarily on the outcomes of American and British attribution processes that …
Annotated Supplement To The Commander's Handbook On The Law Of Naval Operations
Annotated Supplement To The Commander's Handbook On The Law Of Naval Operations
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Chapter 4: Safeguarding U.S. National Interests In The Maritime Environment
Chapter 4: Safeguarding U.S. National Interests In The Maritime Environment
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Chapter 1: Legal Divisions Of The Oceans And Airspace
Chapter 1: Legal Divisions Of The Oceans And Airspace
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Chapter 2: International Status And Navigation Of Military Vessels And Military Aircraft
Chapter 2: International Status And Navigation Of Military Vessels And Military Aircraft
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Chapter 3: Protection Of Persons And Property At Sea And Maritime Law Enforcement
Chapter 3: Protection Of Persons And Property At Sea And Maritime Law Enforcement
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Chapter 8: The Law Of Targeting
Chapter 8: The Law Of Targeting
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Chapter 7: The Law Of Neutrality
Chapter 7: The Law Of Neutrality
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Chapter 6: Adherence And Enforcement
Chapter 6: Adherence And Enforcement
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Chapter 5: Principles And Sources Of The Law Of Armed Conflict
Chapter 5: Principles And Sources Of The Law Of Armed Conflict
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Chapter 12: Deception During Armed Conflict
Chapter 12: Deception During Armed Conflict
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Chapter 11: Treatment Of Detained Persons
Chapter 11: Treatment Of Detained Persons
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Chapter 10: Chemical, Biological, Radiological, And Nuclear Weapons
Chapter 10: Chemical, Biological, Radiological, And Nuclear Weapons
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Chapter 9: Conventional Weapons And Weapons Systems
Chapter 9: Conventional Weapons And Weapons Systems
International Law Studies
The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations is used in the United States and throughout the world as a restatement of U.S. doctrinal law positions on matters affecting the operations of the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Judge advocates and legal advisers have occasion to conduct deeper research to identify the context and source of the rules reflected in the Commander’s Handbook. Responding to this need, an Annotated Supplement to The Commander’s Handbook was produced in 1997 and published as volume 73 of International Law Studies. In the intervening decades, …
Protecting The Free Flow Of Commerce From Houthi Attacks Off The Arabian Peninsula, Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
Protecting The Free Flow Of Commerce From Houthi Attacks Off The Arabian Peninsula, Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
International Law Studies
This article reviews recent maritime incidents involving Houthi missile and drone attacks on commercial shipping and foreign warships off the Arabian Peninsula, purportedly in response to the Israeli military operations in Gaza following the October 7, 2023, Hamas-led attack that killed over 1,300 Israeli civilians. The article discusses the legality of the U.S. response to those incidents, including U.S. counter-piracy operations and the right of unit and collective self-defense. The article also discusses whether the United States should consider conducting land-based attacks on Houthi missile and drone sites in Yemen under the principle of self-help to preempt further attacks on …
One Treaty To Apply Them All? Defining Maritime Terrorism By Cross-References And Reservations: The Asean Region Example, Arron N. Honniball
One Treaty To Apply Them All? Defining Maritime Terrorism By Cross-References And Reservations: The Asean Region Example, Arron N. Honniball
International Law Studies
Defining terms will shape a State’s treaty obligations, the domestic legislation necessary, the availability of cooperative mechanisms, and norm diffusion. Maritime terrorism is an umbrella term referring to the piecemeal approach of treaties creating offenses for identified acts at sea. Further treaties cross-reference the offenses in a selection of global instruments to create related offenses. This includes financing of terrorism (Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (ICSFT)) and regional maritime terrorism (ASEAN Convention on Counter Terrorism (ACCT)). All cross-referenced instruments shall apply to define ICFST or ACCT offenses unless a State excludes, by reservation, a cross-referenced instrument …
Assessing The Legal Framework For Potential U.S. Conflict With China Over Taiwan, Shawn W. Brennan
Assessing The Legal Framework For Potential U.S. Conflict With China Over Taiwan, Shawn W. Brennan
International Law Studies
The People’s Republic of China has clearly stated the importance of resolving the Taiwan question and realizing China’s complete “reunification” to end their century of humiliation. As China grows as the most significant strategic competitor to the United States and develops the military capability to force the issue, understanding what legal authorities the President may exercise in ordering a response is increasingly urgent. This article reviews the legal authorities for the use of force by the United States and examines the contours of the President’s authorities and where they intersect with Congress’s authorities. Through various hypothetical scenarios involving attempts by …
Intelligence Collection And The International Law Of The Sea, James Kraska
Intelligence Collection And The International Law Of The Sea, James Kraska
International Law Studies
This article explores the legal implications of intelligence collection operations at sea. It concludes that in terms of the international law of the sea, intelligence collection that occurs outside of the territorial sea is lawful. Furthermore, even intelligence collection by a foreign ship inside the territorial sea, while a violation of State sovereignty, may not violate the law of the sea, per se. Additionally, within the territorial sea, coastal States are limited in the measures they may take against foreign-flagged submarines and surface warships collecting intelligence since those activities do not constitute an armed attack or even the use of …
Australia’S Maritime Security Challenges: Juggling International Law And Informal Agreements In An International Rules-Based Order, Natalie Klein
Australia’S Maritime Security Challenges: Juggling International Law And Informal Agreements In An International Rules-Based Order, Natalie Klein
International Law Studies
Australia has voiced its commitment to the “rules-based order” since 2008 and the rules-based order has become a touchpoint of both Australian defense and foreign policy. Australia has also voiced its commitment to international law, particularly the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, to meet challenges to the maritime rules-based order, including in the South and East China Seas. References to international law have often been bundled in or left adjacent to the rules-based order and the two terms are not synonymous. This article discusses the role of international law in the rules-based order as it relates to …
Transit Rights Through The Panama Canal, Office Of The Staff Judge Advocate
Transit Rights Through The Panama Canal, Office Of The Staff Judge Advocate
International Law Studies
No abstract provided.
In Defense Of Pure Sovereignty In Cyberspace, Kevin Jon Heller
In Defense Of Pure Sovereignty In Cyberspace, Kevin Jon Heller
International Law Studies
States currently endorse three different positions concerning the international wrongfulness of cyber operations that penetrate computer systems located on the territory of another state but do not rise to the level of a use of force or prohibited intervention. The first position is that such low-intensity cyber operations are never wrongful, because sovereignty is a principle of international law, not a primary rule that can be independently violated. The second is that low-intensity cyber operations are always wrongful, because sovereignty is a primary rule of international law that is violated by any non-consensual penetration of a computer system located on …