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Articles 31 - 56 of 56
Full-Text Articles in Fourth Amendment
Fbi Internet Surveillance: The Need For A Natural Rights Application Of The Fourth Amendment To Insure Internet Privacy, Catherine M. Barrett
Fbi Internet Surveillance: The Need For A Natural Rights Application Of The Fourth Amendment To Insure Internet Privacy, Catherine M. Barrett
Richmond Journal of Law & Technology
Last year, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (“FBI”) acknowledged that it used an Internet electronic surveillance system called Carnivore to investigate and prosecute criminal suspects in more than two dozen cases. Carnivore is a software program developed by the FBI that can be installed on the network of an Internet Service Provider (“ISP”), such as America Online, to monitor, intercept and collect e-mail messages and other Internet activity made and received by individuals suspected of criminal activity. To date, the full capability of Carnivore remains a secret—the FBI refuses to disclose the source code (computer language) that would reveal how …
Usual Suspects Beware: "Walk, Don't Run" Through Dangerous Neighborhoods, Margaret Anne Hoehl
Usual Suspects Beware: "Walk, Don't Run" Through Dangerous Neighborhoods, Margaret Anne Hoehl
University of Richmond Law Review
The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution is "designed 'to prevent arbitrary and oppressive interference by enforcement officials with the privacy and personal security of individuals." The Amendment is currently interpreted as consisting of two separate clauses, the first generally prohibiting unreasonable searches and seizures, and the second requiring the establishment of probable cause prior to the issuance of a warrant. Hence, only those government searches and seizures requiring a warrant necessitate the establishment of probable cause, and all other searches and seizures simply need to be "reasonable."
Dna Fingerprinting - Justifying The Special Need For The Fourth Amendment's Intrusion Into The Zone Of Privacy, Deborah F. Barfield
Dna Fingerprinting - Justifying The Special Need For The Fourth Amendment's Intrusion Into The Zone Of Privacy, Deborah F. Barfield
Richmond Journal of Law & Technology
The Fourth Amendment prohibits the government from conducting unreasonable searches and seizures.When claims arise against the government's Fourth Amendment transgressions, usually those claims turn on interpretation of the term "reasonable." Traditionally, a search and seizure conducted under the authority of a judicial warrant for "probable cause" is unquestionably reasonable.In some, albeit very limited, types of searches reasonableness is met with at least "individualized suspicion."When searches intrude into the human body, however, they implicate a person's most deep-rooted expectation of privacy - the right to be left alone.
Better-Off Walking: Wyoming V. Houghton Exemplifies What Acevedo Failed To Rectify, Erin Morris Meadows
Better-Off Walking: Wyoming V. Houghton Exemplifies What Acevedo Failed To Rectify, Erin Morris Meadows
University of Richmond Law Review
Over the years the United States Supreme Court attempted to produce bright-line rules governing the automobile exception to the Fourth Amendment's warrant requirement. However, the Court's numerous, often confusing decisions in the past eight decades served only to blur those lines. With each attempt to fashion rules that would be workable for both law enforcement in application and lower courts in administration, citizens' Fourth Amendment rights were narrowed. Each time the Court attempted to clarify a rule, it expanded police power to conduct virtually limitless warrantless searches, consistently eviscerating personal privacy rights. The result is an exception originally intended to …
Abrogating The Exclusionary Rule Outside Of The Criminal Trial Context? Pennsylvania Board Of Probation & Parole V. Scott: One Step Closer To A Per Se Rule In Fourth Amendment Jurisprudence, Richard F. Dzubin
University of Richmond Law Review
As citizens of the United States, most of us would abhor warrantless police intrusion into our homes. The Fourth Amendment protects all citizens against unreasonable searches and seizures. When unaccompanied by a valid search warrant, a search of a residence is presumptively unreasonable. Thus, the law proscribes overly-aggressive investigatory methods that trammel the rights of American citizens. What happens, however, when the protected right belongs to a paroled felon suspected of violating the conditions of his parole? In Pennsylvania Board of Probation & Parole v. Scott, the United States Supreme Court refused to extend to parolees the remedies which are …
Choosing Perspectives In Criminal Procedure, Ronald J. Bacigal
Choosing Perspectives In Criminal Procedure, Ronald J. Bacigal
Law Faculty Publications
In this Article, Professor Bacigal examines the Supreme Court's use of various perspectives in examining the reasonableness of searches and seizures. Although the Supreme Court purports to rely on a consistent method of constitutional analysis when rendering decisions on Fourth Amendment issues, the case law in this area indicates that the Court is influenced sometimes by the citizen's perspective, sometimes by the police officers' perspective, and sometimes by the perspective of the hypothesized reasonable person. After identifying the role of perspectives in a number of seminal Court decisions, Professor Bacigal discusses the benefits and limitations of the Court's reliance on …
Temporary Tactic To Combat Drug Cartels, Porcher L. Taylor Iii
Temporary Tactic To Combat Drug Cartels, Porcher L. Taylor Iii
School of Professional and Continuing Studies Faculty Publications
In an effort to wipe out the profits in illegal drug trafficking and thus strike a lethal blow against this business, Congress should consider a one-year suspension of the probable cause requirement for property search warrants for drugs under the Fourth Amendment, but without the concomitant arrests and prosecutions.
Liberty From Officials By Grace: The Fourth Amendment's Application To Automobile Passengers In Maryland V. Wilson, Michael Begland
Liberty From Officials By Grace: The Fourth Amendment's Application To Automobile Passengers In Maryland V. Wilson, Michael Begland
University of Richmond Law Review
On February 19, 1997, the United States Supreme Court handed down its decision in Maryland v. Wilson, and put an end to twenty years of speculation regarding a police officer's authority to order a passenger out of a lawfully stopped automobile. In finding that such an order does not violate a passenger's Fourth Amendment privacy interests, the Supreme Court reversed Maryland's Court of Special Appeals and sided with the majority of states that have considered this narrow issue. The Court's decision provides important insight into the current state of Fourth Amendment jurisprudence and the Supreme Court's increasing willingness to sacrifice …
Putting The People Back Into The Fourth Amendment, Ronald J. Bacigal
Putting The People Back Into The Fourth Amendment, Ronald J. Bacigal
Law Faculty Publications
This Article attempts to answer such questions by examining the evolution of search-and-seizure law in America. Although the structural nature of decision making embodied in the Bill of Rights has far-ranging implications for that entire document, I limit my consideration to the unique aspects of the Fourth Amendment. In doing so I have followed the suggestion that constitutional interpretation considers a threefold question: "Does the Constitution mean what it was meant to mean, or what it has come to mean, or what it ought to mean?" Part I examines the historical involvement of juries in search-and-seizure cases; Part II considers …
The Right Of The People To Be Secure, Ronald J. Bacigal
The Right Of The People To Be Secure, Ronald J. Bacigal
Law Faculty Publications
Part I of this Article defines searches and seizures of property and person, discussing the Supreme Court's initially broad interpretation of the Fourth Amendment and its subsequent narrowing in later decisions. Part II discusses several police "chase cases" leading up to the elimination of accidental and attempted seizures from Fourth Amendment protection in Brower v. County of Inyo and California v. Hodari D. Part Ill analyzes the Brower decision and its effect on accidental seizures, concluding that the analysis set forth therein should be abolished and advocating an alternate test. Part IV confronts the Court's elimination of attempted seizures from …
Reasonable Articulable Suspicion - The Demise Of Terry V. Ohio And Individualized Suspicion, Esther Jeanette Windmueller
Reasonable Articulable Suspicion - The Demise Of Terry V. Ohio And Individualized Suspicion, Esther Jeanette Windmueller
University of Richmond Law Review
The plethora of law review articles and cases on search and seizure demonstrates the confusion and frustration in fourth amendment stop-and-frisk jurisprudence. The fourth amendment to the Constitution guarantees that persons will be free of "unreasonable searches and seizures . . . and no Warrants shall issue but upon probable cause." A "stop-and-frisk" is a warrantless detention and search of a person by a police officer to investigate for unlawfulness. Although the United States Supreme Court has issued many investigative stop decisions, the Court has failed to promulgate a coherent and practical stop-and-frisk procedure for law enforcement personnel to follow. …
In Pursuit Of The Elusive Fourth Amendment: The Police Chase Cases, Ronald J. Bacigal
In Pursuit Of The Elusive Fourth Amendment: The Police Chase Cases, Ronald J. Bacigal
Law Faculty Publications
The first section of this article considers whether the police officer's intent is an indispensable component of fourth amendment seizures. The second section of the article addresses the Court's efforts to define a seizure· by focusing upon the objective causal link between an officer's efforts to apprehend a suspect and the suspect's attempt to avoid apprehension.
An Alternative Approach To The Good Faith Controversy, Ronald J. Bacigal
An Alternative Approach To The Good Faith Controversy, Ronald J. Bacigal
Law Faculty Publications
This Article examines the role of police motivation in all facets of fourth amendment jurisprudence and demonstrates that the Court has often considered good faith as one relevant but ill-defined factor in determining substantive aspects of the fourth amendment. The Article concludes that this ambiguous and flexible approach to substantive fourth amendment rights should be utilized when applying the remedy of exclusion.
Dodging A Bullet, But Opening Old Wounds In Fourth Amendment Jurisprudence, Ronald J. Bacigal
Dodging A Bullet, But Opening Old Wounds In Fourth Amendment Jurisprudence, Ronald J. Bacigal
Law Faculty Publications
The Court began its opinion in Winston by "putting to one side the procedural protections of the warrant requirement. " The parties agreed that the defendant had received "a full measure of procedural protections"and that the state had met the "ordinary" standard of probable cause for a search. "Notwithstanding the existence of probable cause" and the state's full compliance with the procedures required by the warrant clause, the Court found that the reasonableness clause of the fourth amendment demands "a more substantial justification" than probable cause. The Court viewed this higher level of justification as a substantive requirement of the …
The Road To Exclusion Is Paved With Bad Intentions: A Bad Faith Corollary To The Good Faith Exception, Ronald J. Bacigal
The Road To Exclusion Is Paved With Bad Intentions: A Bad Faith Corollary To The Good Faith Exception, Ronald J. Bacigal
Law Faculty Publications
This Article will demonstrate that a search pursuant to a properly issued warrant may trigger application of the exclusionary rule if: (1) there is police bad faith in delaying execution of the warrant, and (2) such bad faith results in additional intrusions upon individual privacy. Although this Article is limited to a consideration of bad faith in delaying the execution of search warrants, the discussion points the way to application of the concept of bad faith to all aspects of fourth amendment jurisprudence.
Review Of Search And Seizure: Constitutional And Common Law, Ronald J. Bacigal
Review Of Search And Seizure: Constitutional And Common Law, Ronald J. Bacigal
Law Faculty Publications
Review of Search and Seizure: Constitutional and Common Law by John W. Hall.
Warrantless Searches And Seizures In Virginia, Ronald J. Bacigal
Warrantless Searches And Seizures In Virginia, Ronald J. Bacigal
Law Faculty Publications
There is a well-recognized lack of consistency and clarity in fourth amendment decisions. At times, each search and seizure case seen is unique and the decisions appear to rest on factual determinations rather than on legal principles. Nonetheless, it is desirable to have some understanding of the basic principles of the fourth amendment, and the way in which these principles affect individual cases.
The Jury As A Source Of Reasonable Search And Seizure Law, Ronald J. Bacigal
The Jury As A Source Of Reasonable Search And Seizure Law, Ronald J. Bacigal
Law Faculty Publications
The definition of a reasonable search has bedeviled the United States Supreme Court for some ninety years. Formal logic or legal reasoning assists the Court in tracing premise to conclusion, but does not alone suggest the initial premise. The Court's difficulty in fourth amendment cases, in general, lies in identifying the premise-the fundamental value which is embodied in this constitutional guarantee. The Court has recognized that this fundamental value, whatever it is, has an origin outside the language of the amendment, and the Court has considered sources such as history, popular consensus, natural law, and utilitarian balancing to find this …
The Fourth Amendment In Flux: The Rise And Fall Of Probable Cause, Ronald J. Bacigal
The Fourth Amendment In Flux: The Rise And Fall Of Probable Cause, Ronald J. Bacigal
Law Faculty Publications
This article will demonstrate the Supreme Court's inability to develop an objective methodology to derive and apply fourth amendment principles under either the traditional probable cause approach or the balancing approach. A detailed analysis of traditional probable cause will reveal that its premises are ultimately subjectively derived? This examination will also show that returning to traditional probable cause would necessitate resurrecting the unrealistic premise that an individual's privacy interest is always outweighed by the government's interest in searching if the authorities meet a static standard of probable cause. The article will then discuss the advent of the balancing approach and …
Some Observations And Proposals On The Nature Of The Fourth Amendment, Ronald J. Bacigal
Some Observations And Proposals On The Nature Of The Fourth Amendment, Ronald J. Bacigal
Law Faculty Publications
This article will analyze the fourth amendment from both the individual and limitation perspectives, and evaluate the desirability of each as a determinant of the reach of fourth amendment protection in specific situations. The individual perspective alone is an inadequate model to evaluate all interests relevant to fourth amendment problems.Conjunctive use of both perspectives, however, allows a complete and balanced analysis of the fourth amendment, and can eliminate the need to ponder such difficult questions as which expectations of privacy are socially justifiable and when an individual has waived his privacy rights. Although an accommodation between the two perspectives is …
Thoughts On Rodriguez: Mr. Justice Powell And The Demise Of Equal Protection Analysis In The Supreme Court, Larry W. Yackle
Thoughts On Rodriguez: Mr. Justice Powell And The Demise Of Equal Protection Analysis In The Supreme Court, Larry W. Yackle
University of Richmond Law Review
Continuity with the Warren Court jurisprudence is not a duty but only a necessity. The necessity is not to follow precedent blindly, but to explain the reasons for departure from it and to justify, again by reason rather than personal predilection, the results reached in every case.
The Emergency Exception To The Fourth Amendment, Ronald J. Bacigal
The Emergency Exception To The Fourth Amendment, Ronald J. Bacigal
University of Richmond Law Review
Although an emergency or exigent circumstance is frequently cited as one justification for a search without a warrant,' "the contours of this exception have not developed and. . . [the Supreme Court] .. .has never pinned it down to a workable and effective meaning. Some of the ambiguity surrounding the emergency exception is attributable to the use of the single term "emergency" to embody several distinct concepts. An emergency can be defined broadly as the basic justification for all warrantless searches, or it may refer to a single type of warrantless search separate and distinct from other recognized warrantless searches. …
Search And Seizure- Permissible Scope Of A Search Incident To A Valid Custodial Arrest
Search And Seizure- Permissible Scope Of A Search Incident To A Valid Custodial Arrest
University of Richmond Law Review
While the fourth amendment does not make a warrant mandatory for all searches, it does require that all searches meet the test of reasonableness. The search incident to a lawful arrest is one of the well-established exceptions to the warrant requirement. The incidental search doctrine and the exclusionary rule were first discussed by the United States Supreme Court in Weeks v. United States. The Supreme Court's failure to enunciate definitive standards in defining the permissible scope of a search incident to an arrest has created numerous problems for the courts and police. The limitations on the permissible scope of a …
Search And Seizure- Knowledge Of Fourth Amendment Rights Not A Prerequisite To A Valid Consent Search
University of Richmond Law Review
The fourth amendment to the United States Constitution, applicable to the states through the fourteenth amendment, guarantees to every citizen the indefeasible right to be secure against unreasonable searches and seizures. As a response to a long history of English colonial abuses, the fourth amendment was intended by the drafters of the Bill of Rights to be a safeguard against governmental misuse of the writs of assistance' and the general warrant. The Supreme Court has broadly interpreted the constitutional mandate of the fourth amendment as proscribing all searches and seizures which do not comply with its stringent provisions. However, certain …
The Background Of The Fourth Amendment To The Constitution Of The United States, Joseph J. Stengel
The Background Of The Fourth Amendment To The Constitution Of The United States, Joseph J. Stengel
University of Richmond Law Review
It is generally agreed that the antecedent history of the Fourth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States is concerned primarily with those events that took place in England and the AmericanColonies in the thirty years immediately preceding the adoption of the Amendment. However, it also seems clear that it was the executive abuse of search and seizure in England throughout the centuries that led to those events. The search for the reason "why" of the Fourth Amendment should then logically begin with the earliest recorded events, statutes and cases involving search and seizure in English history and be …
The Background Of The Fourth Amendment To The Constitution Of The United States, Part Two, Joseph J. Stengel
The Background Of The Fourth Amendment To The Constitution Of The United States, Part Two, Joseph J. Stengel
University of Richmond Law Review
Upon the conclusion of the Constitutional Convention in 1787 and after the proposed Constitution was submitted by Congress to the states for ratification, there arose a clamor concerning the absence of a bill or declaration of rights therein. Scholars have disagreed as to the basis for this controversy. Story says that the demand was "a matter of very exaggerated declamation and party zeal, for the mere purpose of defeating the Constitution." Cooley concludes that leading statesmen made the want of a bill of rights in the Constitution the ground of a "decided, earnest, and formidable opposition to the confirmation of …