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Articles 91 - 119 of 119
Full-Text Articles in First Amendment
United States V. National Treasury Employees Union And The Constitutionality Of The Honoraria Ban: Protecting The First Amendment Rights Of Public Employees, Judy M. Lin
University of Richmond Law Review
During the 1980s, government ethics were brought into the spotlight as the public's confidence in the integrity of government officials eroded. In an attempt to curb actual and perceived improprieties by government employees, and to reinforce the standards of integrity within the federal government, President Bush signed into law the Ethics Reform Act of 1989.
Considerations Of Legislative Fit Under Equal Protection, Substantive Due Process, And Free Speech Doctrine: Separating Questions Of Advancement, Relationship And Burden, R. Randall Kelso
University of Richmond Law Review
Whenever a court reviews legislation under an equal protection, substantive due process, or free speech analysis, the court considers whether the fit between the legislature's chosen means and intended ends is sufficient to pass constitutional muster. The Supreme Court analyzes these "fit" questions by considering the manner in which the statute achieves its benefits and burdens in terms of whom the statute regulates and whom the statute fails to regulate. Of course, these "fit" questions are different depending upon whether the Court uses minimum rationality review, "heightened" rational review, intermediate review, or strict scrutiny. But in all cases, the question …
"Speech Acts" And The First Amendment, Lawrence Friedman
"Speech Acts" And The First Amendment, Lawrence Friedman
University of Richmond Law Review
Of the 1989 student protests in Beijing's Tiananmen Square, one image lingers still: a lone figure standing motionless before a column of tanks, an extreme act of self-expression in defense of the right to express oneself. The makeshift Statue of Liberty erected by the students occupying the Square pointed to the country providing their inspiration. The foundations of that inspiration may in turn be traced to the handful of words---"Congress shall make no law...abridging the freedom of speech, or the press . . . "--which have become synonymous with American-style democracy.'
Considering Religion As A Factor In Foster Care In The Aftermath Of Employment Division, Department Of Human Resources V. Smith And The Religious Freedom Restoration Act, Thomas J. Cunningham
Considering Religion As A Factor In Foster Care In The Aftermath Of Employment Division, Department Of Human Resources V. Smith And The Religious Freedom Restoration Act, Thomas J. Cunningham
University of Richmond Law Review
Most rights considered by Americans to be "fundamental" are granted a special level of protection by the decisions of the United States Supreme Court. The standard is often described as "strict scrutiny" or "compelling interest." Under this standard of protection, a state must have more than just a good reason for writing legislation that encroaches upon its citizens' fundamental rights. Rather, the state must be able to prove a "compelling" interest in achieving some desired result, a result which necessitates the curtailment of fundamental rights. In 1990, however, the United States Supreme Court substantially restricted a right from this list: …
City Of Cincinnati V. Discovery Network, Inc.: Towards Heightened Scrutiny For Truthful Commercial Speech?, Robert T. Cahill Jr.
City Of Cincinnati V. Discovery Network, Inc.: Towards Heightened Scrutiny For Truthful Commercial Speech?, Robert T. Cahill Jr.
University of Richmond Law Review
Only recently' has the Supreme Court given First Amendment protection to commercial speech. Initially, the Court refused to extend constitutional protection to commercial utterances. In Valentine v. Chrestensen, the Court, without citing any precedent, held that "we are equally clear that the Constitution imposes no such restraint on government as respects purely commercial advertising." However, soon after the Chrestensen decision, in the wake of post-war economic development, the Court began to express doubt about its validity. This doubt eventually culminated in Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council.
The Right To Religion-Based Exemptions In Early America: The Case Of Conscientious Objectors To Conscription, Ellis M. West
The Right To Religion-Based Exemptions In Early America: The Case Of Conscientious Objectors To Conscription, Ellis M. West
Political Science Faculty Publications
One of the more controversial decisions handed down by the Supreme Court in recent years was its decision in the case of Employment Division, Oregon v. Smith, which raised the basic issue of whether the free exercise clause of the First Amendment guarantees a right to religion-based exemptions, i.e., whether it gives persons and groups a prima facie right to be exempt from having to obey valid laws when they have religious reasons for noncompliance. More specifically, in Smith, two Native Americans claimed that their prosecution for using an illegal drug, peyote, was precluded by the free exercise …
The Right To Religion-Based Exemptions In Early America: The Case Of Conscientious Objectors To Conscription, Ellis M. West
The Right To Religion-Based Exemptions In Early America: The Case Of Conscientious Objectors To Conscription, Ellis M. West
Political Science Faculty Publications
One of the more controversial decisions handed down by the Supreme Court in recent years was its decision in the case of Employment Division, Oregon v. Smith, which raised the basic issue of whether the free exercise clause of the First Amendment guarantees a right to religion-based exemptions, i.e., whether it gives persons and groups a prima facie right to be exempt from having to obey valid laws when they have religious reasons for noncompliance. More specifically, in Smith, two Native Americans claimed that their prosecution for using an illegal drug, peyote, was precluded by the free exercise clause …
Freedom Of Speech As A Product Of Democracy, Arnold H. Loewy
Freedom Of Speech As A Product Of Democracy, Arnold H. Loewy
University of Richmond Law Review
There are very nearly as many (if not more) rationales for freedom of speech as there are books and articles on the subject. Without attempting to canvass them all, I think that they can be divided into two generic theories. One theory suggests that freedom of speech is essentially teleological or consequentialist, i.e. it exists to serve some other goal, usually effective participation in the democratic process. The other theory, which is deontological or normative, suggests that freedom of speech exists as an end in itself rather than as a means towards accomplishing something else. Of course, these theories are …
The Lemon Test Rears Its Ugly Head Again: Lamb's Chapel V. Center Moriches Union Free School District, Wirt P. Marks Iv
The Lemon Test Rears Its Ugly Head Again: Lamb's Chapel V. Center Moriches Union Free School District, Wirt P. Marks Iv
University of Richmond Law Review
Since 1971, Establishment Clause cases have been analyzed under the three-prong test articulated by the Supreme Court in Lemon v. Kurtzman. However, this test has often been criticized for producing inconsistent results. In addition, inconsistent application of the test by the Court, and conflicting philosophies among judges and scholars regarding the separation of church and state, have resulted in considerable objection to the Lemon test. In fact, at least five of the current Supreme Court Justices have expressed their dissatisfaction with the Lemon test as a workable framework for Establishment Clause analysis.
Some Reflections On Multiculturalism, "Equal Concern And Respect," And The Establishment Clause Of The First Amendment, Sanford Levinson
Some Reflections On Multiculturalism, "Equal Concern And Respect," And The Establishment Clause Of The First Amendment, Sanford Levinson
University of Richmond Law Review
I was born and grew up in Hendersonville, North Carolina, a small town of about 6000 people in the western part of the state. There were about 30 Jewish families in Hendersonville, and I knew from a very early age that I was Jewish and, consequently, that I was different in an important way from almost all of my neighbors and classmates. The most evident way, especially to a child, involved dietary prohibitions against eating pork. I also knew that I was allowed absences from school (Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur) while other children were not. Inevitably, my Jewishness accounts …
Retracing First Amendment Jurisprudence Under The Free Exercise Clause: Culmination In Church Of The Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. V. City Of Hialeah And Resolution In The Religious Freedom Restoration Act, Laura A. Colombell
University of Richmond Law Review
The above comments of Justice Stewart recognize the myriad of religious beliefs and practices which exist in our nation of diverse people. Protecting them all from government infringement has become an increasingly lofty aim as the number and nature of religions in the United States continue to grow.
The Legal Nature Of Academic Freedom In United States Colleges And Universities, William H. Daughtrey Jr.
The Legal Nature Of Academic Freedom In United States Colleges And Universities, William H. Daughtrey Jr.
University of Richmond Law Review
The courts serve as the ultimate guardians of the free expression of ideas in colleges and universities throughout the United States. While the Constitution does not enumerate any specific right of academic freedom, the Supreme Court of the United States has employed the first and fourteenth amendments to help ensure that academic institutions can continue to be forums for the unfettered exchange of ideas. State constitutions and statutes also help de- termine the contours of academic freedom.
Free Speech And The Mandated Disclosure Of Information, R. George Wright
Free Speech And The Mandated Disclosure Of Information, R. George Wright
University of Richmond Law Review
This essay focuses on one element of an important, unresolved question in free speech law. The broader unresolved question concerns how freedom of speech, as a legal and social institution, operates best or most efficiently. Our society has often debated how an economy, as a legal and social institution, functions best. On this analogous question, we have generally concluded that the national economy ought to manifest a mixture of at least minimally voluntary marketplace exchanges and appropriate forms of government regulation.
The Case Against A Right To Religion-Based Exemptions, Ellis M. West
The Case Against A Right To Religion-Based Exemptions, Ellis M. West
Political Science Faculty Publications
When, if ever, does the free exercise clause of the first amendment give an individual or organization the right to disobey with impunity a valid law of the state? This question is being discussed with increasing frequency and intensity because of the growing number of persons and groups who are going to the courts and claiming such a right on the grounds that the application of certain laws to them would burden their free exercise of religion. Almost all the individuals and some of the groups who claim such a right do so because the laws to which they object …
The First Amendment And The Postal Service Subscriber Requirement: Constitutional Problems With Denying Equal Access To The Postal System, Elizabeth Gorman
The First Amendment And The Postal Service Subscriber Requirement: Constitutional Problems With Denying Equal Access To The Postal System, Elizabeth Gorman
University of Richmond Law Review
Second-class mail rates are available only to publications that distribute one- half or more of all circulated copies either to paying subscribers or to persons who have requested that the publication be sent to them. A publication that distributes more than half of its copies free of charge to persons who have not specifically requested copies must pay the higher third-class rate. As a result, the lower rate is denied to many community newspapers and to publications designed to win converts to a political cause or religious faith. This article argues that the Postal Service's unequal treatment of publications without …
Lowe V. Sec: Investment Advisors Act Of 1940 Clashes With First Amendment Guarantees Of Free Speech And Press, Stacy P. Thompson
Lowe V. Sec: Investment Advisors Act Of 1940 Clashes With First Amendment Guarantees Of Free Speech And Press, Stacy P. Thompson
University of Richmond Law Review
In the wake of mounting controversy over whether federal securities laws can withstand first amendment scrutiny, the United States Supreme Court granted certiorari in Lowe v. SEC to consider whether the first amendment prohibits an injunction against publication and distribution of an investment advisory newsletter by an unregistered investment advisor. However, the Court bypassed this constitutional question, and instead adopted a statutory construction of the Investment Advisers Act of 1940 (the "Act") that excluded Lowe's newsletters as "bonafide financial publications" of general circulation under section 80(b)- 2(a)(11)(D). The majority ruled that the petitioners were not investment advisers, and therefore did …
A School Board's Authority Versus A Student's Right To Receive Information, Timothy L. Coggins
A School Board's Authority Versus A Student's Right To Receive Information, Timothy L. Coggins
Law Faculty Publications
This note examines the considerations which led the United States Supreme Court to determine that a school board's authority over the administration of the schools is not absolute if the exercise of this authority violates the constitutional rights of the students. Second. the note explores the development of a student's right to receive information through a school library as a guarantee of the first amendment, a right that cannot be ignored by a school board when the board removes books which it considers to be inappropriate either because of the ideas presented in the books or because of the local …
The First Amendment And Licensing Biology Teachers In Creationism, Benjamin W. Emerson
The First Amendment And Licensing Biology Teachers In Creationism, Benjamin W. Emerson
University of Richmond Law Review
The constitutional provisions separating church and state have long provided fertile ground for conflict resulting in often-bitter courtroom battles. From the famous Scopes "monkey trials" of 1927 in which Clarence Darrow eloquently argued for the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution in the public schools, through the decisions of the sixties, seventies, and eighties banning prayer, the posting of the Ten Commandments, and similar practices, the conflict has finally come full circle, with fundamentalist Christian groups now arguing that the Biblical account of creation should be taught in public schools as scientific theory.
Libel And Slander In Virginia, Thomas E. Spahn
Libel And Slander In Virginia, Thomas E. Spahn
University of Richmond Law Review
The law of libel and slander in Virginia is unsettled. Even defining the terms is difficult. While many states classify libel and slander as separate torts, in Virginia defamation encompasses them both. Moreover, there are two separate definitions of "defamation per se" in Virginia. There are also two types of "malice" which are applicable in defamation actions; and to make matters worse, one type of "malice" which actually is not malice at all is called "actual malice."
Transforming The Privately Owned Shopping Center Into A Public Forum: Pruneyard Shopping Center V. Robins, James M. Mccauley
Transforming The Privately Owned Shopping Center Into A Public Forum: Pruneyard Shopping Center V. Robins, James M. Mccauley
University of Richmond Law Review
A recent Supreme Court decision has affirmed a state's choice to provide its citizens access to privately owned shopping centers for the purpose of exercising free speech and petition rights. The United States Supreme Court in Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins held that state consitutional provisions permitting individuals to exercise free speech and petition rights on private shopping center property do not violate the shopping center owner's property rights under the fifth and fourteenth amendments or his free speech rights under the first and fourteenth amendments. There exists a delicate balance between the competing in- terests of the shopping center …
Public Access To Criminal Trials: Richmond Newspapers, Inc. V. Virginia, Christopher C. Spencer
Public Access To Criminal Trials: Richmond Newspapers, Inc. V. Virginia, Christopher C. Spencer
University of Richmond Law Review
Richmond Newspapers, Inc. v. Virginia is, in the words of Justice Stevens, a "watershed case." For the first time, the Court recognized that some sort of first amendment right of access to government proceedings exists. The Court, in a plurality opinion (joined by two Justices, accompanied by five concurring opinions and one dissent), held that the right of the public to attend criminal trials is "implicit in the guarantees of the First Amendment."
"Indecent" Language: A New Class Of Prohibitable Speech? F.C.C. V. Pacifica Foundation, Robert T. Billingsley
"Indecent" Language: A New Class Of Prohibitable Speech? F.C.C. V. Pacifica Foundation, Robert T. Billingsley
University of Richmond Law Review
Courts in this country have long recognized that the first amendment guarantee of freedom of speech, while written in absolute terms, is not an unyielding bar to all government regulation. The basic question left unresolved, however, is under what circumstances the government may intervene on behalf of itself or its citizens to place restrictions upon the great protected right of communication. Mr. Justice Holmes, speaking for the Supreme Court in Schenck v. United States, indicated that the question was whether the words used would create a "clear and present danger" of bringing about "substantive evils that Congress has a right …
The Supreme Court And The Not-So-Privileged Press, John D. Epps
The Supreme Court And The Not-So-Privileged Press, John D. Epps
University of Richmond Law Review
The first amendment mandates freedom of the press, but the extent of that freedom has been the issue in scores of Supreme Court opinions. Whether press freedom is above and beyond that provided the general public by the first amendment has been a fertile question for debate. The question is more than academic, however; its answer has determined, for example, that reporters must be jailed for refusing to comply with subpoenas and that newsrooms can be searched for evidence of criminal activities.
Problems In Defining The Institutional Status Of The Press, Andrew A. Jaxa-Debicki
Problems In Defining The Institutional Status Of The Press, Andrew A. Jaxa-Debicki
University of Richmond Law Review
This comment will deal with the concept of freedom of the press within the context of recent Supreme Court rulings which have directly or indirectly involved definitions of the role of the organized press in the governmental framework established by the Constitution. Specifically, the focus will be in the areas of the law dealing with defamation, testimonial privilege and the fair trial-free press controversy. The purpose will be to discern whether the Supreme Court is developing a concept of freedom of the press which is distinguishable from the general guarantee of freedom of speech and which derives its rationale from …
Constitutional Law-First Amendment-Newspaper Advertisement Of Abortion Referral Service Entitled To First Amendment Protection
University of Richmond Law Review
Controversies involving the first amendment rights of freedom of press and speech are not confined to reporters vowing to protect the identities of their sources against government prosecutors or committees attempting to identify them. An area of conflict of equal import is the degree of protection, if any, afforded commercial speech by the Constitution. In 1942, the Supreme Court in Valentine v. Chrestensen enunciated the commercial speech doctrine which has been used, despite subsequent criticism and attempts to limit the holding, to remove commercial adver- tisement from the ambit of constitutional protection.
Equal Protection- School Financing System Based On Local Property Taxes Held Unconstitutional
Equal Protection- School Financing System Based On Local Property Taxes Held Unconstitutional
University of Richmond Law Review
The fourteenth amendment of the United States Constitution allows unequal protection of the laws, provided such unequal treatment and discrimination bear some rational relationship to a conceivably legitimate state objective. This "rational relationship" test allows the states wide latitude and discretion in enacting legislation. However, where any state statute involves so-called "suspect classifications" or "fundamental interests," the statute will be subjected to a strict scrutiny test, under which the state must establish that there is not only a compelling state interest which justifies the law but also that the distinctions drawn in the statute are necessary to further such interests.
Freedom Of Religion- "There Is No Constitutional Right To Choose To Die
Freedom Of Religion- "There Is No Constitutional Right To Choose To Die
University of Richmond Law Review
The practice of one's religious beliefs has generally been freely allowed in the United States so long as it does not infringe upon the constitutionally protected rights of others. However, in the recent case of John F. Kennedy Memorial Hospital v. Heston, the New Jersey Supreme Court seemingly has modified this principle by justifying the restraint of an individual in the practice of his religious beliefs, not to preserve the constitutional rights of others, but to protect that individual from himself.
Obscenity: From Hicklin To Hicklin?, Frank W. Smith Jr.
Obscenity: From Hicklin To Hicklin?, Frank W. Smith Jr.
University of Richmond Law Review
Modern advances in printing, distribution and advertisement have accentuated an old problem of social and legal significance-what, if anything, should be done to control obscene publications. Increased concern with the problem has been shown not only by organizations active in this area, by numerous articles and books which have recently been written, but also by the courts, highlighted by the recent Ginzburg, Mishkin' and 'Fanny Hill' cases. These cases have been hailed by some as a license for a full scale war on the "smut peddlers" and by others as a caution to proceed slowly. The obscenity problem brings into …
Fair Trial - Free Press, M. Ray Doubles
Fair Trial - Free Press, M. Ray Doubles
University of Richmond Law Review
Blazing headlines such as these, followed by detailed accounts of the crime given to newspaper reporters by the police, and opinions of the accused's guilt expressed by prosecuting attorneys, or alleged confessions of the accused with an account of his previous criminal record, have been the basis of many recent appellate court reversals of convictions had in trial court criminal cases. The reason assigned: Denial of a fair trial by an impartial jury.