Air and Space Law Commons^™

Legal Turbulence: Addressing Unresolved Questions In Civil Aviation Through Judicial Adjudication, Arthur Shirichena

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

The increasing complexity of international civil aviation has outpaced the mechanisms currently available for the peaceful resolution of disputes. While aviation has long been governed by treaties such as the Chicago Convention of 1944 and managed through institutions like the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), many emerging issues remain unresolved by these frameworks. Questions concerning the interaction between aviation and competition law, the legality of air blockades and no-fly zones, and the definitional ambiguities surrounding dual-use technologies such as weaponized aircraft or unmanned aerial systems have created pressing normative and jurisdictional challenges. This Paper argues that the establishment or empowerment …

Regulating Space-Based Solar Power: Challenges Under Both Space Law And Energy Law, Anne-Sophie Martin, Steven Freeland

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Space-based solar power (SBSP) is emerging as a potential catalyst for global decarbonisation, driven by advances in wireless power transmission, in-orbit assembly, and photovoltaic technologies. Programmes such as the European Space Agency’s SOLARIS initiative, China’s planned megawatt-scale demonstrator, and private projects including Constant Aperture Solid State Integrated Orbital Phased Array and Caltech’s Space Solar Power Project illustrate the shift from theoretical models to operationalisation. SBSP offers continuous, weather-independent renewable energy capable of complementing terrestrial solar, wind, and hydro generation, enhancing grid stability, energy security, and progress toward the UN Sustainable Development Goals. It also supports future space activities by providing …

Front Matter

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

No abstract provided.

What Is Terrorism?, Karl T. Muth, Alice Locatelli

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Is Gotham's Joker a terrorist? What about a school shooter? As we approach the twenty-fifth anniversary of the 9/11 attacks, the United States still lacks a monolithic legal definition of 'terrorism,' creating a dangerous 'motive gap' between federal statutes. This Article analyzes the friction between the motive-heavy definition of 'domestic terrorism' in Title 18 (which includes a mens rea aspect) and the conduct-focused definition of 'terrorist activity' in Title 8 (which focuses on overt acts). Using the hijacking of Flight 93 and the Columbine shootings as case studies, we demonstrate how Title 18's political requirement creates a coverage void for …

Not Quite Fit To Fly: A Reflection On Due Process And Agency Rulemaking In The Faa’S Approach To Pilot Certification, Emily Ryter

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Judicial and legislative involvement in agency rulemaking is a relevant and particularly salient topic. The authority of an agency to make sound policy with flexibility and discretion often comes into conflict with the judiciary’s duty to prevent arbitrary regulations, which lack solid evidence or convincing rationale. Considering that more than three million passengers fly every day, it is no surprise that establishing a robust certification process for pilots is among the Federal Aviation Administration’s top priorities. The courts and the Legislature have also recently made notable strides to exert more control over the standards for medical certification. In July, the …

Decluttering The Orbital Commons: A Proposal For The Regulation Of Privately Created Space Debris, Rose W. Cobey

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Space is one of the only resources shared by every person in every country at all times. The problem of space debris is therefore one that affects everyone living on our planet. Scientists and politicians have warned about crowding, collisions, and murky liability for decades, and each of these issues will only worsen without intervention. Space debris has caused damage on Earth since the Space Race, and it now endangers people and property in orbit. We are at an ever-increasing risk of building a wall around our planet and locking ourselves inside. In the last ten years, a new wrinkle …

Front Matter

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

No abstract provided.

Void In Space: How Loper Bright And The Major Questions Doctrine Affect The Federal Communications Commission’S Regulatory Authority Of Orbital Debris, Hernan Valles

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Since the dawn of the space race, countries have been reaching for the stars. Recently, companies have joined the race. The space race and technological advancement of near-Earth orbital satellites have caused a buildup of debris in near-Earth orbit. The exponential increase of orbital debris in Earth’s orbit threatens the environmental system of the planet, the safety of astronauts aboard the International Space Station, the structure of other spacecraft, and modern economies relying on operational satellites to provide rapid communication, navigation, and weather forecasting information.

Yet there is a void among U.S. regulators in setting rules that mitigate orbital debris …

When Planes Fall And People Die: An International And Domestic Overview Of Disaster In The Sky, Clayton Rainey

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Commercial aviation disasters expose catastrophic breakdowns in engineering, regulatory oversight, corporate governance, and human systems. From the Boeing 737 MAX tragedies involving Lion Air Flight 610 and Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 to the recent domestic crash of American Airlines Flight 5342, modern aviation disasters have become defining legal events that test the boundaries of product liability, federal preemption, sovereign immunity, and transnational treaty law. This Article examines how aviation mass-casualty events evolve into complex litigation involving aircraft manufacturers, airlines, regulatory agencies, and governmental entities, and how those legal frameworks differ in international versus domestic contexts.

Beyond legal doctrine, this Article …

What The Wild West Can Teach Us About Space Exploration, Kody George

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Currently, the laws governing property in outer space are inadequate and underdeveloped, yet space exploration by private entities is rapidly growing. In this legal vacuum, private companies’ actions heavily influence, and in some cases, provide the basis for, legal precedent. The policies that for-profit corporations prefer are different from those that most government actors will prefer and are much different from those that support the common heritage of mankind doctrine. Rewarding entrepreneurship, innovation, and investments by governments, while balancing the interest all mankind has in outer space is why this Article proposes a tiered, patent land system that would grant …

Outer Space Employment Tax And Grounded Enforceability: A Node-Based Approach Under International Space Law, Binbin Guo

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

As commercial space activities move from state-led exploration to market operations, outer space is changing from a mission space into a workspace. As a result, the traditional connecting point for employment taxes, centered on the workplace, begins to lose force. This Article develops the concept of outer space employment taxation and argues that its key issue is not taxation in orbit, but enforceability. International space law does not directly provide the tax base, tax rates, or specific withholding rules. But through state responsibility, authorization and continuing supervision, and registration coupled with jurisdiction and control, it already provides institutional interfaces through …

Are Trains In Space Legal? Examining Problems With A Multilateral Space Resource Management Regime And Public-Private Partnerships, Maitland Rames

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

As governments plan to expand into outer space and private parties continue to participate in space operations, the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty) has the potential to inhibit any ambitions for all but the most basic exploratory missions. That is because Article II of the Outer Space Treaty forbids national appropriation in space, which calls into question the legality of any infrastructure and land use in space. This uncertainty has far-reaching implications for the future economy of space. Fortunately, …

Front Matter

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

No abstract provided.

In The Heavens As It Is On Earth: Embracing Federalism To Supervise And Promote U.S. Non-Governmental Entities’ Non-National Activities In Outer Space, Steven E. Bartz

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Most of the law governing outer space is public international law, which applies, with limited exceptions, directly to nation-states (states) only. The application of international law to nongovernmental entities’ (NGEs), such as natural persons and companies with distinct legal personage, activities in outer space occurs through a state’s domestic legal implementation of that international law. The United States is a party to several treaties that govern the exploration and use of outer space (the Applicable Treaties), which, through the Supremacy Clause of the U.S. Constitution, become “the supreme Law of the Land.” The Applicable Treaties were written and went into …

Transnational Accountability For Space Debris As A Precursor To Maintaining Peace In Outer Space, Bella Alonzo

The International Law Review Association Student Forum

Beginning with the Space Age in the 1950s, space exploration has accelerated exponentially as humans on Earth are continuously drawn to the mystery and opportunity that lies in outer space. The United States (“U.S.”) and the Soviet Union led the charge in space discovery throughout the “Space Race,” and once other countries saw the value in developing the technology to utilize space as a resource, multiple nations followed suit. While the U.S. and Russia retain the most dominant presence in outer space, other global superpowers like China, India, and Japan have exhibited competitive capabilities.

Front Matter

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

No abstract provided.

Front Matter

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

No abstract provided.

Reframe: A New Interpretive Framework For Non-Governmental Entity Responsibility In Outer Space, Steven E. Bartz

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

The mainstream interpretation of State responsibility for Non-Governmental Entities (NGEs) with respect to their commercial operations in outer space may hinder the further development of the commercial space industry. Specifically, that interpretation produces broad responsibility for nation-states (States) under international law and derivative consequences for States and NGEs, but the international space community might avoid the otherwise harsh practical consequences that are likely to hamper the continued growth of commercial activities by NGEs in outer space by reexamining and reinterpreting a few aspects of existing law. This article (1) examines mainstream interpretations of State responsibility for NGEs with respect to …

Space Agriculture, Biotechnology, And Terraforming: Rethinking The Paradigm Of Harmful Contamination, Francesca Giannoni-Crystal

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

As humanity transitions from sporadic exploratory space missions to permanent settlements on celestial bodies (like the Moon or Mars), agriculture biotechnology, and, potentially, terraforming projects will be essential for establishing self-sustaining settlements.

These activities raise critical issues concerning the interpretation of the principle of harmful contamination under Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty (OST) and its implementation through the Committee on Space Research’s Policy on Planetary Protection (COSPAR Policy) referred together in this article as the “Planetary Protection Framework,” which is primarily oriented toward exploration with scientific integrity rather than permanent habitation.

The challenge lies in the fact that …

The Heavy Odds For A Weaponized And Lawless Outer Space, Rob Frieden

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Just as space commerce appears to have reached a critical mass, competing national government interests can thwart progress with strategies and tactics that increase market risk, volatility, and uncertainty. Despite universal support for a treaty-level commitment to pursue only peaceful activities, for the benefit of everyone, unilateral actions by the governments of China, Russia, and the United States have the potential to disrupt markets and render space a new theater of warfare. These nations appear disinclined to embrace the unenforceable goals contained in five international treaties governing activities in outer space.

So-called Great Power Competition has generated high stakes rivalry …

Prepare For Landing: The Dot’S Authority To Regulate Unfair And Deceptive Practices Amidst The Supreme Court’S Elimination Of Chevron Deference, Ali Garman

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

On June 28, 2024, the Supreme Court overturned Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. with their decision in Loper Bright v. Raimondo—holding that judges are not obligated to defer to agency interpretations of the statutes they administer. One month after this decision, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals held that the Department of Transportation does not have authority to issue a rule regulating how airlines communicate certain fees to customers during the booking process. This decision contradicts the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals’ earlier decision to uphold similar DOT regulations attempting to prohibit unfair and deceptive …

Guilty Until Proven Innocent - Litigating Shy Bladder Cases Before The National Transportation Safety Board, Alan Armstrong

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

For airmen, the drug testing regulations and procedures in the United States are dispiriting, oppressive, and unjust. Evidencing contempt for basic physiology, an airman unable to produce forty-five milliliters of urine within three hours is deemed to have “refused” a Department of Transportation (DOT) drug test. While the regulations require the airman to be briefed on the shy bladder protocol, this requirement is not enforced by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB).

The FAA, after losing a case where the airman left the drug testing facility without being warned that such conduct would be deemed a refusal, simply abolished the …

Aviation Cybersecurity And Third-Party Software Service Providers: Do Companies Like Crowdstrike Get A Free Pass To Create Cyber Vulnerabilities?, Claire Konerza

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Commercial aviation has steadily become the busiest and most efficient means of travel across the world. In order to keep up with the increasing demands of its customers, the industry has undergone numerous digital and technological transformations in recent years. Collision avoidance systems have allowed for more planes in the skies, online ticket reservations have made booking a flight as simple as a few clicks, and in-flight wi-fi allows passengers to engage in both work and leisure at 30,000 feet. Overall, these innovations have increased safety, capacity, and convenience for both airlines and their customers. However, these transformations have also …

Front Matter

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

No abstract provided.

Space Resource Development And Property - Clarifying Usufruct, Jeremy A. Kent

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

This article examines competing legal frameworks for governing property rights in outer-space resources through a comparative analysis of two distinct approaches: the rule of capture and the concept of usufruct. The increasing interest in commercial space activities, such as mining the Moon and asteroids, has raised questions about the legal frameworks governing property rights in space resources. The growing challenge is that while the Outer Space Treaty (OST) serves as the foundation for space law, it does not explicitly address property rights in the resources humankind increasingly can extract from the space domain.

The rule of capture is a legal …

Dangers From Regulatory Vacuums In Outer, Inner, And Near Space, Rob Frieden

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Space, “the final frontier,” has become an attractive but increasingly risky market for both public and private investments. Gold rush enthusiasm anticipates solutions to the digital divide via small low earth orbiting satellites, extraction of valuable minerals from asteroids, a vibrant space launch and tourism industry, and expanding earth observation opportunities. Such entrepreneurial boldness juxtaposes with a severe lag in government oversight, consumer safeguards, and essential operational guardrails. The ambitious plans of Elon Musk and other space entrepreneurs could fail—despite recent market success—as SpaceX’s plans for 148 rocket launches in 2024.

Without substantial refinement of global space treaties and effective …

Roaring Skies: The Law Of Supersonic Commercial Flight And Arguments For Its Return, Caleb S. Dorris

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

The prospect of supersonic commercial flight is no longer confined to history; it is reemerging as a viable transportation model in the 21st century. With major airlines placing orders for next-generation supersonic aircraft and regulatory agencies, including the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), reconsidering longstanding restrictions, the return of supersonic flight is imminent. This article examines the legal, regulatory, and policy considerations that have shaped supersonic aviation’s trajectory and explores the challenges that remain for its full reintroduction into global airspace.

First, this article surveys the historical rise and fall of supersonic passenger aviation, …

Airplane!: Does The Federal Aviation Act Preempt State Law Design Defect Claims?, Max Birmingham

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Which level of government—state or federal—has jurisdiction to set safety standards for aviation defect design is a nuanced issue. Generally speaking, federal law preempts state law in this context by occupying the field through a regulatory scheme that permeates aviation safety. The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (FAAct) confers its namesake agency—the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)—the powers to prescribe the “minimum standards required in the interest of safety.” The word “minimum” has been seized upon by those on the state side of the debate to advocate that it means the floor. And they contend that those in the Union have …

Flight Path To Accountability: A Legal Comparison Of Boeing’S Shortcomings, Airbus’S Successes, And International Aviation Safety Regulations, Riley M. Wagstaff

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Investigations following two separate and deadly crashes of Boeing 737 8 Max aircraft revealed that America’s most trusted manufacturer had failed to notify pilots and airliners alike of a new Maneuvering Characteristics Augmentation System, commonly known as MCAS. What had first seemed like an accident unfortunately had a deeper and traceable history. Through relatively new United States legislation, Boeing was essentially permitted to oversee their own operations and grant airworthiness certifications for their own aircrafts. This practice is wholly unlike the detailed certification process of the European manufacturing giant, AirBus, by the European Aviation Safety Administration (EASA). This comment sheds …

High Crimes In Low Airspace: The Rise Of Drones In Cross-Border Drug Trafficking, Hannah Haight

Journal of Air Law and Commerce

Can the United States effectively regulate its airspace when criminal actors exploit it without entering traditional territorial channels? Mexican drug trafficking organizations increasingly deploy drones to deliver narcotics across the U.S.–Mexico border. These flights often occur at low altitudes, at night, and in remote areas, which renders them nearly undetectable by conventional enforcement methods. Yet, no statute squarely addresses the use of drones in cross-border drug trafficking. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates drones under the FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012, but its mandate is safety, not interdiction. The result? A growing technological asymmetry: criminal cartels innovate, while …