Engineering Commons^™

Quantification Of Antiviral Drug Tenofovir (Tfv) By Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (Sers) Using Cumulative Distribution Functions (Cdfs), Marguerite R. Butler, Jana Hrncirova, Meredith Clark, Sucharita Dutta, John B. Cooper

Chemistry & Biochemistry Faculty Publications

Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is an ultrasensitive spectroscopic technique that generates signal-enhanced fingerprint vibrational spectra of small molecules. However, without rigorous control of SERS substrate active sites, geometry, surface area, or surface functionality, SERS is notoriously irreproducible, complicating the consistent quantitative analysis of small molecules. While evaporatively prepared samples yield significant SERS enhancement resulting in lower detection limits, the distribution of these enhancements along the SERS surface is inherently stochastic. Acquiring spatially resolved SERS spectra of these dried surfaces, we have shown that this enhancement is governed by a power law as a function of analyte concentration. Consequently, by definition, …

Plasma Protein Signatures Of Adult Asthma, Gordon J. Smilnak, Yura Lee, Abhijnan Chattopadhyay, Annah B. Wyss, Julie D. White, Sinjini Sikdar, Jianping Jin, Andrew J. Grant, Alison A. Motsinger-Reif, Jian-Liang Li, Mikyeong Lee, Bing Yu, Stephanie J. London

Mathematics & Statistics Faculty Publications

Background: Adult asthma is complex and incompletely understood. Plasma proteomics is an evolving technique that can both generate biomarkers and provide insights into disease mechanisms. We aimed to identify plasma proteomic signatures of adult asthma.

Methods: Protein abundance in plasma was measured in individuals from the Agricultural Lung Health Study (ALHS) (761 asthma, 1095 non-case) and the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study (470 asthma, 10,669 non-case) using the SOMAScan 5K array. Associations with asthma were estimated using covariate adjusted logistic regression and meta-analyzed using inverse-variance weighting. Additionally, in ALHS, we examined phenotypes based on both asthma and seroatopy (asthma with …

Corrosion Of Implant Materials In The Human Body, Maedeh Barzmehri

Corrosion Research

This paper extensively examines the complex problem of implant corrosion occurring within the human body. The corrosion of implants gives rise to substantial challenges, encompassing compromised implant durability, patient safety concerns, and potential adverse impacts on the long-term functionality of the medical device. The study's primary objectives include offering a concise overview of the various corrosion mechanisms that impact a range of implant materials and outlining health complications linked to the byproducts of implant corrosion. Furthermore, it delves into a cost analysis specific to hip or knee revision arthroplasty, which has become a prevalent scenario in implant failure cases on …

Monitoring And Modelling The Glutamine Metabolic Pathway: A Review And Future Perspectives, Zohreh Mirveis, Paul Cahill, Nitin Patel, Hugh Byrne

Articles

In this review, the contribution of NMR to the metabolomics field will be discussed—particularly as it relates to cancer and drug metabolism research. An overview of the typical NMR metabolomic experiment will be presented while emphasizing important caveats ranging from experimental design to data interpretation.

Identification Of Proteins Involved In Cell Membrane Permeabilization By Nanosecond Electric Pulses (Nsep), Giedre Silkuniene, Uma Mangalanathan, Alessandra Rossi, Peter A. Mollica, Andrei G. Pakhomov, Olga N. Pakhomova

Bioelectrics Publications

The study was aimed at identifying endogenous proteins which assist or impede the permeabilized state in the cell membrane disrupted by nsEP (20 or 40 pulses, 300 ns width, 7 kV/cm). We employed a LentiArray CRISPR library to generate knockouts (KOs) of 316 genes encoding for membrane proteins in U937 human monocytes stably expressing Cas9 nuclease. The extent of membrane permeabilization by nsEP was measured by the uptake of Yo-Pro-1 (YP) dye and compared to sham-exposed KOs and control cells transduced with a non-targeting (scrambled) gRNA. Only two KOs, for SCNN1A and CLCA1 genes, showed a statistically significant reduction in …

An Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Drug Development Collaboration Stimulated By The Virginia Drug Discovery Consortium, John S. Lazo, Ruben M.L. Colunga-Biancatelli, Pavel A. Solopov, John D. Catravas

Bioelectrics Publications

The genesis of most older medicinal agents has generally been empirical. During the past one and a half centuries, at least in the Western countries, discovering and developing drugs has been primarily the domain of pharmaceutical companies largely built upon concepts emerging from organic chemistry. Public sector funding for the discovery of new therapeutics has more recently stimulated local, national, and international groups to band together and focus on new human disease targets and novel treatment approaches. This Perspective describes one contemporary example of a newly formed collaboration that was simulated by a regional drug discovery consortium. University of Virginia, …

Synthesis Of A Series Of Trimeric Branched Glycoconjugates And Their Applications For Supramolecular Gels And Catalysis, Jonathan Bietsch, Anji Chen, Dan Wang, Guijun Wang

Chemistry & Biochemistry Faculty Publications

Carbohydrate-derived molecular gelators have found many practical applications as soft materials. To better understand the structure and molecular gelation relationship and further explore the applications of sugar-based gelators, we designed and synthesized eight trimeric branched sugar triazole derivatives and studied their self-assembling properties. These included glucose, glucosamine, galactose, and maltose derivatives. Interestingly, the gelation properties of these compounds exhibited correlations with the peripheral sugar structures. The maltose derivative did not form gels in the tested solvents, but all other compounds exhibited gelation properties in at least one of the solvents. Glucose derivatives showed superior performance, followed by glucosamine derivatives. They …

Exposure To Pcb126 During The Nursing Period Reversibly Impacts Early-Life Glucose Tolerance, Brittany B. Rice, Keegan W. Sammons, Sara Y. Ngo Tenlep, Madeline T. Weltzer, Leryn J. Reynolds, Cetewayo S. Rashid, Hollie I. Swanson, Kevin J. Pearson

Human Movement Sciences & Special Education Faculty Publications

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent environmental organic pollutants known to have detrimental health effects. Using a mouse model, we previously demonstrated that PCB126 exposure before and during pregnancy and throughout the perinatal period adversely affected offspring glucose tolerance and/or body composition profiles. The purpose of this study was to investigate the glucose tolerance and body composition of offspring born to dams exposed to PCB126 during the nursing period only. Female ICR mice were bred, and half of the dams were exposed to either vehicle (safflower oil) or 1 µmole PCB126 per kg of body weight via oral gavage on postnatal …

Electromechanical Effects On Micro And Nano Particles Generated From Drug Delivery Devices And Their Implications In Flow And Deposition Efficiency, Mohammed Ali, Mark Miller

Technology Faculty Publications and Presentations

This experimental investigation was undertaken to quantify the electrostatic charge and aerodynamic size distribution of the medicinal drug particles inhaled through an in-vitro mouth-throat (MT) in order to compare the amount of drugs can be delivered to the human lung while mimicking a patient is either sitting or lying. The MT model is a cadaver-based replica cast of human oral-pharyngeal-laryngeal region. Tested drug aerosols were generated by a commercially available metered dose inhaler (MDI). The MT model was placed inside a humidity (95%) and temperature (37^oC) controlled chamber. Its mouth-inlet was positioned horizontally and vertically to simulate sitting …

Development Of A Decellularized Hydrogel Composite And Its Application In A Novel Model Of Disc-Associated Low Back Pain In Female Sprague Dawley Rats, David Lillyman

Department of Agricultural and Biological Systems Engineering: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

Chronic low back pain is a global socioeconomic crisis compounded by an absence of reliable, curative treatments. The predominant pathology associated with chronic low back pain is degeneration of intervertebral discs in the lumbar spine. During degeneration, nerves can sprout into the intervertebral disc tissue and be chronically subjected to inflammatory and mechanical stimuli, resulting in pain. Pain arising from the intervertebral disc, or disc-associated pain, is a complex, multi-faceted disorder which necessitates valid animal models to screen therapeutics and study pathomechanisms of pain.

While many research teams have created animal models of disc degeneration, the translation of these platforms …

4,6-O-Phenylethylidene Acetal Protected D-Glucosamine Carbamate-Based Gelators And Their Applications For Multi-Component Gels, Pooja Sharma, Guijun Wang

Chemistry & Biochemistry Faculty Publications

The self-assembly of carbohydrate-based low molecular weight gelators has led to useful advanced soft materials. The interactions of the gelators with various cations and anions are important in creating novel molecular architectures and expanding the scope of the small molecular gelators. In this study, a series of thirteen new C-2 carbamates of the 4,6-O-phenylethylidene acetalprotected D-glucosamine derivatives has been synthesized and characterized. These compounds are rationally designed from a common sugar template. All carbamates synthesized were found to be efficient gelators and three compounds are also hydrogelators. The resulting gels were characterized using optical microscopy, atomic force microscopy, …

Hsp90 Inhibitors Modulate Sars-Cov-2 Spike Protein Subunit 1-Induced Human Pulmonary Microvascular Endothelial Activation And Barrier Dysfunction, Ruben Manuel Luciano Colunga Biancatelli, Pavel Solopov, Betsy W. Gregory, Yara Khodour, John D. Catravas

Bioelectrics Publications

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused more than 5 million deaths worldwide. Multiple reports indicate that the endothelium is involved during SARS-Cov-2-related disease (COVID-19). Indeed, COVID-19 patients display increased thrombophilia with arterial and venous embolism and lung microcapillary thrombotic disease as major determinants of deaths. The pathophysiology of endothelial dysfunction in COVID-19 is not completely understood. We have investigated the role of subunit 1 of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S1SP) in eliciting endothelial barrier dysfunction, characterized dose and time relationships, and tested the hypothesis that heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) inhibitors would prevent and repair such injury. S1SP …

Therapeutic Approaches To Alter Mineral Formation And Growth In Vascular Calcification, Amirala Bakhshiannik

FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Cardiovascular diseases represent the global leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Cardiovascular calcification is the most significant predictor of cardiovascular events, but no therapeutic options exist to prevent or treat mineral formation in the vasculature. The presence of bone-like mineral increases cardiac work required to move blood through systemic circulation and can lead to mechanical stress in atherosclerotic plaques, promoting plaque rupture events that cause heart attacks. Clinical trials correlated bisphosphonates (BiPs), common anti-osteoporosis pharmaceuticals, with contradicting cardiovascular outcomes. Here, we demonstrated the importance of treatment timing in BiP-induced mineral disruption or promotion. We showed that BiPs can alter morphological …

Mechanism For Selective Binding Of Aromatic Compounds On Oxygen-Rich Graphene Nanosheets Based On Molecule Size/Polarity Matching, Heyun Fu, Bingyu Wang, Dongqiang Zhu, Zhicheng Zhou, Shidong Bao, Xiaolei Qu, Yong Guo, Lan Ling, Shourong Zheng, Pu Duan, Jingdong Mao, Klaus Schmidt-Rohr, Shu Tao, Pedro J.J. Alvarez

Chemistry & Biochemistry Faculty Publications

Selective binding of organic compounds is the cornerstone of many important industrial and pharmaceutical applications. Here, we achieved highly selective binding of aromatic compounds in aqueous solution and gas phase by oxygen-enriched graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets via a previously unknown mechanism based on size matching and polarity matching. Oxygen-containing functional groups (predominately epoxies and hydroxyls) on the nongraphitized aliphatic carbons of the basal plane of GO formed highly polar regions that encompass graphitic regions slightly larger than the benzene ring. This facilitated size match–based interactions between small apolar compounds and the isolated aromatic region of GO, resulting in high binding …

Design And Synthesis Of Α-Anomeric Diacetylene-Containing Glycosides As Photopolymerizable Molecular Gelators, Guijun Wang, Dan Wang, Anji Chen, Ifeanyi S. Okafor, Lalith Palitha Samankumara

Chemistry & Biochemistry Faculty Publications

Glycolipids with diacetylene functional groups are fascinating compounds with many practical uses. Among these, diacetylene-containing gelators are especially important because they can form photopolymerizable gels, which are useful stimuli-responsive materials. Inspired by the unique properties of diacetylene-containing gelators and to understand the structural influences especially the location of the diacetylene functional groups on the self-assembling properties, a series of 15 novel N-acetyl-d-glucosamine derivatives with the diacetylene functional group introduced at the anomeric position were designed and synthesized. The diacetylene function is attached to the sugar through α-glycosylation with the distance from the anomeric oxygen being varied from one, two, …

Drug-Based Therapeutic Strategies For Covid-19-Infected Patients And Their Challenges, Khatereh Zarkesh, Elaheh Entezar-Almahdi, Parisa Ghasemiyeh, Mohsen Akbarian, Marzieh Bahmani, Shahrzad Roudaki, Rahil Fazlinejad, Soliman Mohammadi-Samani, Negar Firouzabadi, Majid Hosseini, Fatemeh Farjadian

Manufacturing & Industrial Engineering Faculty Publications and Presentations

Emerging epidemic-prone diseases have introduced numerous health and economic challenges in recent years. Given current knowledge of COVID-19, herd immunity through vaccines alone is unlikely. In addition, vaccination of the global population is an ongoing challenge. Besides, the questions regarding the prevalence and the timing of immunization are still under investigation. Therefore, medical treatment remains essential in the management of COVID-19. Herein, recent advances from beginning observations of COVID-19 outbreak to an understanding of the essential factors contributing to the spread and transmission of COVID-19 and its treatment are reviewed. Furthermore, an in-depth discussion on the epidemiological aspects, clinical symptoms …

Aptamer-Based Voltammetric Biosensing For The Detection Of Codeine And Fentanyl In Sweat And Saliva, Rosa Lashantez Cromartie

FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Despite the many governmental and medicinal restrictions created to combat the opioid epidemic in the United States, opioid abuse and overdose rates continue to rise. The development of an aptamer-based voltammetric sensor and biosensor is described in this dissertation. The aim was to develop a low-cost, sensitive, and specific aptamer-based sensor for on-site, label-free determination of codeine and fentanyl in biological fluids. To do this, the surfaces of screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCE) were modified with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), followed by the addition of single-stranded DNA aptamers. These were covalently bound to the electrode surface. Operations of the sensors were collected …

Synergistic Anticancer Response Of Curcumin And Piperine Loaded Lignin-G-P (Nipam-Co-Dmaema) Gold Nanogels Against Glioblastoma Multiforme, Xinyi Zhao, Bilal Javad, Daxing Cui, James Curtin, Furong Tian

Articles

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive and commonly diag- 11 nosed brain cancer and presents a strong resistance to routine chemotherapeutic drugs. 12 The present study involves the synthesis of Lignin-g- p (NIPAM-co-DMAEMA) gold 13 nanogel, loaded with curcumin and piperine to treat GBM. The application has three 14 functions: (1) overcome the limitations of biodistribution, (2) enhance the toxicity of an- 15 ticancer drugs against GBM, (3) identify the uptake pathway. Atom transfer radical 16 polymerization was used to synthesize the Lignin-g-PNIPAM network, crosslinked with 17 the gold nanoparticles (GNPs) to self-assemble into nanogels. The size distribution and …

Open Source Software Toolchain For Automated Non‐Targeted Screening For Toxins In Alternative Foods, S. W. Breuer, L. Toppen, S. K. Schum, J. M. Pearce

Michigan Tech Publications

Previous published methods for non-targeted screening of toxins in alternative foods such as leaf concentrate, agricultural residues or plastic fed to biological consortia are time consuming and expensive and thus present accessibility, as well as, time-constraint issues for scientists from under resourced settings to identify safe alternative foods. The novel methodology presented here, utilizes a completely free and open source software toolchain for automatically screening unknown alternative foods for toxicity using experimental data from ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. The process uses three distinct tools (mass spectrometry analysis with MZmine 2, formula assignment with MFAssignR, and data filtering with …

No Ordinary Proteins: Adsorption And Molecular Orientation Of Monoclonal Antibodies, Ankit D. Kanthe, Andrew Ilott, Mary Krause, Songyan Zheng, Jinjiang Li, Wei Bu, Mrinal K. Bera, Binhua Lin, Charles Maldarelli, Raymond S. Tu

Publications and Research

The interaction of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with air/water interfaces plays a crucial role in their overall stability in solution. We aim to understand this behavior using pendant bubble measurements to track the dynamic tension reduction and x-ray reflectivity to obtain the electron density profiles (EDPs) at the surface. Native immunoglobulin G mAb is a rigid molecule with a flat, “Y” shape, and simulated EDPs are obtained by rotating a homology construct at the surface. Comparing simulations with experimental EDPs, we obtain surface orientation probability maps showing mAbs transition from flat-on Y-shape configurations to side-on or end-on configurations with increasing concentration. …

Lipoprotein-Induced Increases In Cholesterol And 7-Ketocholesterol Result In Opposite Molecular-Scale Biophysical Effects On Membrane Structure, Manuela A.A. Ayee, Irena Levitan

Faculty Work Comprehensive List

Under hypercholesterolemic conditions, exposure of cells to lipoproteins results in a subtle membrane increase in the levels of cholesterol and 7-ketocholesterol, as compared to normal conditions. The effect of these physiologically relevant concentration increases on multicomponent bilayer membranes was investigated using coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations. Significant changes in the structural and dynamic properties of the bilayer membranes resulted from these subtle increases in sterol levels, with both sterol species inducing decreases in the lateral area and inhibiting lateral diffusion to varying extents. Cholesterol and 7-ketocholesterol, however, exhibited opposite effects on lipid packing and orientation. The results from this study indicate …

Bibliometric Analysis Of Emerging Technologies In The Field Of Computer Science Helping In Ovarian Cancer Research, Sonali Kothari Dr., Anvita Gupta, Muskaan Agrawal Agrawal, Kajal Jaggi, Adhiraj Dev Goswami, Ketan Kotecha, M. Karthikeyan Dr., Vijayshri Khedkar

Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal)

This study is carried out to provide an analysis of the literature available at the intersection of ovarian cancer and computing. A comprehensive search was conducted using Scopus database for English-language peer-reviewed articles. The study administers chronological, domain clustering and text analysis of the articles under consideration to provide high-level concept map composed of specific words and the connections between them.

Mechanism For The Unfolding Of The Top7 Protein In Steered Molecular Dynamics Simulations As Revealed By Mutual Information Analysis, Ognjen Perišić, Willy Wriggers

Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering Faculty Publications

We employed mutual information (MI) analysis to detect motions affecting the mechanical resistance of the human-engineered protein Top7. The results are based on the MI analysis of pair contact correlations measured in steered molecular dynamics (SMD) trajectories and their statistical dependence on global unfolding. This study is the first application of the MI analysis to SMD forced unfolding, and we furnish specific SMD recommendations for the utility of parameters and options in the TimeScapes package. The MI analysis provided a global overview of the effect of perturbation on the stability of the protein. We also employed a more conventional trajectory …

Potential Production Of Theranostic Boron Nitride Nanotubes (64cu-Bnnts) Radiolabeled By Neutron Capture, Wellington Marcos Silva, Helio Ribeiro, Jaime Taha-Tijerina

Manufacturing & Industrial Engineering Faculty Publications and Presentations

In this work, the radioisotope 64Cu was obtained from copper (II) chloride dihydrate in a nuclear research reactor by neutron capture, (63Cu(n, )64Cu), and incorporated into boron nitride nanotubes (BNNTs) using a solvothermal process. The produced 64Cu-BNNTs were analyzed by TEM, MEV, FTIR, XDR, XPS and gamma spectrometry, with which it was possible to observe the formation of64Cu nanoparticles, with sizes of up to 16 nm, distributed through nanotubes. The synthesized of 64Cu nanostructures showed a pure photoemission peak of 511 keV, which is characteristic of gamma radiation. This type of emission is desirable for Photon Emission Tomography (PET scan) …

Combining Cryo-Em Density Map And Residue Contact For Protein Secondary Structure Topologies, Maytha Alshammari, Jing He

Computer Science Faculty Publications

Although atomic structures have been determined directly from cryo-EM density maps with high resolutions, current structure determination methods for medium resolution (5 to 10 Å) cryo-EM maps are limited by the availability of structure templates. Secondary structure traces are lines detected from a cryo-EM density map for α-helices and β-strands of a protein. A topology of secondary structures defines the mapping between a set of sequence segments and a set of traces of secondary structures in three-dimensional space. In order to enhance accuracy in ranking secondary structure topologies, we explored a method that combines three sources of information: a set …

Single‐Molecule 3d Orientation Imaging Reveals Nanoscale Compositional Heterogeneity In Lipid Membranes, Jin Lu, Hesam Mazidi, Tianben Ding, Oumeng Zhang, Matthew D. Lew

Electrical & Systems Engineering Publications and Presentations

In soft matter, thermal energy causes molecules to continuously translate and rotate, even in crowded environments, thereby impacting the spatial organization and function of most molecular assemblies, such as lipid membranes. Directly measuring the orientation and spatial organization of large collections (>3000 molecules μm⁻²) of single molecules with nanoscale resolution remains elusive. In this paper, we utilize SMOLM, single‐molecule orientation localization microscopy, to directly measure the orientation spectra (3D orientation plus “wobble”) of lipophilic probes transiently bound to lipid membranes, revealing that Nile red's (NR) orientation spectra are extremely sensitive to membrane chemical composition. SMOLM images resolve …

Pharmaceutical Manufacturing In The 21st Century: Identification And Analysis Of Key Elements, Robert N. Mills

Honors Theses

The availability of quality pharmaceutical products impacts the lives of the global population on a daily basis. The importance of product availability and quality within pharmaceutical manufacturing requires that quality systems put into place are capable of accurately and robustly capturing the quality compliance, or lack thereof, of the various stages of production. This review intends to analyze current expert-recommended best practices within key elements of a pharmaceutical manufacturing quality control system and provide recommendations throughout. The quality elements discussed include Quality by Design method validation, necessary equipment determination, and equipment qualification, followed by documentation control and data flow.

Towards Stable Electrochemical Sensing For Wearable Wound Monitoring, Sohini Roychoudhury

FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Wearable biosensing has the tremendous advantage of providing point-of-care diagnosis and convenient therapy. In this research, methods to stabilize the electrochemical sensing response from detection of target biomolecules, Uric Acid (UA) and Xanthine, closely linked to wound healing, have been investigated. Different kinds of materials have been explored to address such detection from a wearable, healing platform. Electrochemical sensing modalities have been implemented in the detection of purine metabolites, UA and Xanthine, in the physiologically relevant ranges of the respective biomarkers. A correlation can be drawn between the concentrations of these bio-analytes and wound severity, thus offering probable quantitative insights …

Coordinated Unmanned Aircraft System (Uas) And Ground-Based Weather Measurements To Predict Lagrangian Coherent Structures (Lcss), Peter J. Nolan, James Pinto, Javier González-Rocha, Anders Jensen, Christina N. Vezzi, Sean C. C. Bailey, Gijs De Boer, Constantin Diehl, Roger Laurence Iii, Craig W. Powers, Hosein Foroutan, Shane D. Ross, David G. Schmale Iii

Mechanical Engineering Faculty Publications

Concentrations of airborne chemical and biological agents from a hazardous release are not spread uniformly. Instead, there are regions of higher concentration, in part due to local atmospheric flow conditions which can attract agents. We equipped a ground station and two rotary-wing unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) with ultrasonic anemometers. Flights reported here were conducted 10 to 15 m above ground level (AGL) at the Leach Airfield in the San Luis Valley, Colorado as part of the Lower Atmospheric Process Studies at Elevation—a Remotely-Piloted Aircraft Team Experiment (LAPSE-RATE) campaign in 2018. The ultrasonic anemometers were used to collect simultaneous measurements of …

Multivariate Analysis For The Quantification Of Transdermal Volatile Organic Compounds In Humans By Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell System, Ahmed Hasnain Jalal

FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations

In this research, a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) sensor was investigated for specific detection of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) for point-of-care (POC) diagnosis of the physiological conditions of humans. A PEMFC is an electrochemical transducer that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. A Redox reaction takes place at its electrodes whereas the volatile biomolecules (e.g. ethanol) are oxidized at the anode and ambient oxygen is reduced at the cathode. The compounds which were the focus of this investigation were ethanol (C₂H₅OH) and isoflurane (C₃H₂ClF₅O), but theoretically, the sensor …