Digital Commons Network^™

Evaluating Energy Transition Winners And Losers: Are Algae Biofuels Desirable, Feasible, And Viable?, Michelle M. Arnold

All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Fall 2023 to Present

Climate change, environmental degradation, finite resources, and the uneven distribution of energy access all points to an urgent need for a global energy transition. But making that transition responsibly requires more than enthusiasm for “green” solutions—it demands careful evaluation of which energy sources are truly worth investing in. This dissertation develops a practical decision-making framework to help policymakers, scientists, and the public answer three foundational questions about any new energy technology: Is it desirable? Is it feasible? Is it viable? By systematically weighing public narratives, biophysical constraints, and patterns of innovation, the framework aims to prevent wasted time, funding, and …

Developing Standardized Testing Datasets For Benchmarking Automated Quality Control Algorithm Performance With Aquatic Sensor Data, Ehsan Kahrizi

All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Fall 2023 to Present

Advances in water monitoring technologies have led to a large increase in the amount of data collected from rivers, lakes, and other water systems. However, ensuring that these data are accurate and reliable remains a major challenge. Traditional data quality checks are done manually by a technician, which can be slow, inconsistent, and not practical for real-time monitoring. This research addresses these challenges by developing standardized datasets for testing computer-based methods that automatically detect and correct errors in water data. Using information from the Logan River Observatory in northern Utah, we created a step-by-step process to identify, categorize, and label …

Predicting Major Solar Flares Using Convolutional Neural Networks And Multivariate Magnetic Field Time-Series Data, Arash Azizian Foumani

All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Fall 2023 to Present

Major solar flares are sudden, intense bursts of X-ray energy from the Sun, capable of severely impacting critical technological infrastructure like satellites, communication networks, and power grids on Earth. Accurate prediction of these high-intensity events is crucial but presents a significant challenge. This is largely due to their infrequent occurrence and the complex, dynamic nature of the Sun's underlying magnetic activity which drives these events. This research focuses on improving the prediction of major solar flares by utilizing detailed historical data that tracks the evolution of magnetic properties within solar active regions over time. This time-based data, however, contains inherent …

Cognitive Dynamics In Undergraduate Engineering Education: Effects Of Need For Cognitive Closure And Achievement Goal Orientation On Cognitive Engagement, Zain Ul Abideen

All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Fall 2023 to Present

Cognitive and motivational factors play an important role in students’ engagement during problem-solving, which can lead to academic and professional success. Among these factors, Need for cognitive closure (NFCC) and achievement goal orientation (AGO) have been studied extensively individually, but their interaction and impact on engineering students’ problem-solving is still not explored. NFCC refers to the person’s desire for quick answers, and AGO is the student’s approach to learning and success. This research investigated the impact of NFCC on gender and engineering major, and the relation between NFCC (five facets) and AGO (Mastery, Performance) at their different levels. Additionally, this …

Using Luminescence Of Quartz Temper From Archaeological Pottery To Infer Wildfire Intensity In The Southwestern Us, Brooklyn D. Dib

All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Fall 2023 to Present

The size and frequency of wildfires have increased recently, impacting ecosystems, communities, and human health. This research uses the heat-sensitive luminescence signals of quartz sand temper within archaeological pottery to record past wildfire conditions. Pottery sherds, which are fragments of archaeological pottery, from the forest floor in sites in New Mexico and Arizona were collected from different fire contexts (no fire exposure, historical fires, prescribed burns, and modern wildfires). These forests are primarily Ponderosa Pine with a grassy understory. The interior sand grains of each sherd sample were analyzed using optically stimulated luminescence, which dates when the mineral grains were …

Biocontrol Of Canada Thistle (Cirsium Arvense) With The Rust Fungus, Puccinia Punctiformis In The Intermountain West: Integrated Weed Management Compatibility And Characterization Of Microbiome Associations, Caitlin Henderson

All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Fall 2023 to Present

Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) is an invasive weed of major concern in both agricultural and native areas. It competes against native plants, reduces crop production and quality, and causes significant costs in management and damages. Canada thistle can survive and spread through seeds, but primarily does so through its extensive root system, which causes the greatest management difficulties. There are several control methods for this invasive weed, herbicides are perhaps the most common and effective, however, they have limitations and negative consequences. Herbicide use near waterways is restricted and there are growing concerns of the development of herbicide …

Assessing The Human Health Impacts Of Nutrient-Dense Diets: Clinical Trials On Regenerative Agriculture And Protein Source, Jennifer Jensen-Cloward

All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Fall 2023 to Present

Increasing consumer demand for sustainable, animal-friendly food options has sparked discussion about farming production practices. As more people prioritize their food choices, questions have circulated about how farming practices might impact not just the environment, but also human health. Regenerative agriculture is a farming method that has gained popularity for its potential to improve both food quality and environmental outcomes. It focuses on restoring ecosystem function, ultimately impacting the resulting nutrients in food products, and includes foods like grass-fed meat and organic produce. However, it is still unclear whether these practices make a difference in human health. This dissertation informs …

Tsunami Simulation And Boulder Transport Across Contrasting Coastal Geomorphologies In Sanriku, Japan, Storm Roberts, Daisuke Sugawara, Hidetoshi Masuda, Sarah Boulton

School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences

Tsunami boulders serve as crucial indicators for reconstructing past tsunami events, yet their full transport process remains poorly understood. This study investigates tsunami boulder transport at two geomorphically distinct field sites in Japan affected by the 2011 tsunami, integrating field data with a validated tsunami simulation to track wave parameters at every transport stage. The simulation was validated against eyewitness accounts, local reports, and offshore GPS buoy data. Near the shoreline at the Settai site simulated flow velocities reached a maximum of 7.55 m/s, compared to 6.51 m/s at Hoshiyama beach. Inland at Settai, a maximum 15.56 m/s flow velocity …

Tectonic Modulation Of Caldera Volcanism On The South Aegean Island Arc, A Metcalfe, Tim Druitt, Katharina Pank, Steffen Kutterolf, Jonas Preine, Sarah Beethe, Axel K. Schmitt, Christian Hübscher, Paraskevi Nomikou, Thomas A. Ronge, Carole Berthod, Hehe Chen, Shun Chiyonobu, Acacia Clark, Susan Debari, Ralf Gertisser, Raymond Johnston, Olga Koukousioura, Michael Manga, Molly Mccanta, Iona Mcintosh, Ally Peccia, Masako Tominaga, Yuzuru Yamamoto, Adam Woodhouse, Alexis Bernard, Tatiana Fernandez-Perez, Christopher Jones, Kumar Batuk Joshi, Günther Kletetschka

School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences

Many highly hazardous, caldera-forming explosive eruptions occur in extensional tectonic regimes, but the role of lithospheric rifting in modulating caldera volcanism remains enigmatic. IODP Expedition 398 deep-drilled the volcano-sedimentary infills of submarine half-grabens around Santorini caldera on the continental South Aegean Volcanic Arc. Here we use the volcanic tephra archives to produce a high-resolution eruptive chronostratigraphy for Santorini, to ground-truth seismic stratigraphy, and to extract an integrated timeline of volcano-tectonic couplings. The rift basins contain several submarine volcaniclastic megabeds from the caldera-forming eruptions of Santorini and one from the Kos caldera. The thickest megabed succession is < 250,000 yrs old and lies on a seismic reflection onlap surface that records a phase of rapid rifting. Sedimentation lagged behind subsidence during this rifting phase, creating bathymetric troughs. Integrating submarine core-seismic and onland datasets, we propose that rifting may have driven the transition of Santorini from a prolonged state of effusive and minor explosive activity (∼550 – 250 ka) typical of arc stratovolcanoes to one of repeated caldera-forming eruptions (<250 ka). Rapid rifting may have amplified the normal internal dynamics of the magmatic system in three ways, driving the volcano into a sustained, highly explosive state: (1) an increase in the supply of mantle-derived basalt, (2) enhanced shearing, permeability, and melt percolation in the transcrustal magmatic system, and (3) the development of horizontally extensive magma reservoirs. Broadly simultaneous transitions into caldera-forming activity of the widely separated Santorini and Kos Volcanoes suggest that the two magmatic systems are linked by plate-scale lithospheric stresses.

Understanding The Sources And Variability Of Air Pollution In Northern High Latitudes: Using Formaldehyde (Hcho) As A Tracer, Tianlang Zhao

Chemistry and Biochemistry

Formaldehyde (HCHO) is a trace gas primarily found in the planetary boundary layer. It is a first-generation oxidation product of a wide range of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during their reaction with hydroxyl radicals (OH) and serves as a key precursor for major air pollutants, including surface ozone (O3) and secondary organic aerosols (SOA). Despite its significance, HCHO remains poorly constrained in North America, particularly in the northern high latitudes. My Ph.D. research focuses on elucidating the variability of HCHO across the Arctic and the contiguous United States (CONUS), spanning temporal scales from diurnal cycles to interannual variability, and identifying …

Fast And Accurate Measurement Of Small Field Dosimetry Using A Novel Scintillation Detector, Baozhou Sun

Faculty, Staff and Students Publications

Background: The most used instruments for small-field dosimetry have notable limitations, including the need for correction of output factors, limited scanning speeds, and challenges in alignment for percentage depth dose (PDD) measurements, particularly for extremely small fields. However, plastic scintillation detectors (PSDs) are an attractive alternative for small-field dosimetry due to their correction-free nature, linear dose response, and fast response time.

Purpose: This study evaluates the robustness and accuracy of the dosimetric measurements using a new water-equivalent PSD in small-field dosimetry. The study also aims to report accurate measurements of output factors, profiles, and an indirect method for measuring PDD …

Elucidating The Oxidation Mechanisms In Cr2alb2 Using Density Functional Theory And Thermodynamic Modeling, Ushan Asela Adhikarige

Theses and Dissertations

This thesis investigates the oxidation behavior of Cr2AlB2 surfaces using density functional theory calculations combined with thermodynamic modeling. Our analysis encompassed surface stability assessments, oxygen adsorption studies on various surfaces, and thermodynamic insights into oxidation mechanisms. Surface stability assessments reveal that the (010) surface terminated with an Al layer exhibits the lowest surface energy. Oxygen adsorption studies on the (010), (111), and (021) surfaces demonstrate strong dissociative adsorption with binding energies ranging from -4.72 to -4.22 eV depending on coverage. Thermodynamic analysis shows that elevated temperatures reduce oxidation favorability, while increased oxygen partial pressure enhances it. The study reveals that …

Seasonal Performance Of Mrms Qpe In Urban Hydrologic Modeling Using Epa-Swmm, Randall Kirk Bagwell

Theses and Dissertations

Accurate rainfall estimation is essential for effective hydrologic modeling, particularly in urban environments where infrastructure must withstand extreme precipitation. This study evaluates the EPA Storm Water Management Model (EPA-SWMM) using MRMS RadarOnly Quantitative Precipitation Estimation (QPE) 1-hour Accumulation as the primary rainfall input for a watershed in Little Rock, Arkansas. The region was selected due to its urban character and the limited availability of radar-based hydrologic studies in Arkansas. 21 storms were analyzed from 2022-2025: 10 in Winter, 7 in Spring, and 4 in Summer. Storms were selected due to their effect on flow. The model was calibrated using February …

Differential Photometric Analysis Of Exoplanet Candidates Toi-1362.01, Toi-2290.01, Toi-6010.01, And Toi-6324.01, Samantha Buck

Theses and Dissertations

To maximize the science return from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), the TESS Follow-up Observing Program (TFOP) was created to network scientists and observatories to conduct follow-up observations of potential exoplanets. As members of TFOP-Subgroup 1, we observed four exoplanet candidates: TOI-1362.01, TOI-2290.01, TOI-6010.01, and TOI-6324.01 using the University of North Dakota Space Studies Observatory. The TOI observations were conducted from 31 October 2024 – 15 November, 2024 UTC. AstroImageJ software was used to perform differential photometry and, if a transit event was observed, determine orbital parameters and physical characteristics. Each of the target’s light curves was modeled and …

Dynamic Wellbore-Integrity Framework For Post-Blowout Capping Of Offshore Wells, Abdelhakim Khouissat

Theses and Dissertations

In the aftermath of a blowout, a well undergoes a period of unrestricted fluid discharge (de facto primary recovery) followed by pressure buildup after its shut-in, which can adversely impact wellbore integrity. The quintessential example is Union Oil’s 1969 “A-21” well blowout in California’s Santa Barbara Channel, where seafloor-broaching incidents (oil “boilups”) kept taking place from the sides of the well following several failed well-capping attempts, until reservoir depletion eventually allowed a successful shut-in.Analytical and numerical reservoir depletion models are coupled with near-wellbore geomechanics to quantify yardsticks related to the post-blowout discharge utilized to indicate dangers for underground blowouts, in …

Identity Formation Through The Lived Experiences Of Immigrant Muslim High School Students, Badera Muhanna

Theses and Dissertations

The growing number of Muslim students enrolled in U.S. public schools necessitates a more comprehensive understanding of their unique experiences within their educational environments. This phenomenological qualitative study investigated Muslim students' perceptions of their lived experiences in a high school in the Northern Great Plains of the United States. Six Muslim students in their junior and senior years were selected to participate in semi-structured interviews. Through the lens of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, this study aimed to deepen understanding of how Muslim students develop their sense of identity and the factors that contribute to this development. The findings revealed that …

Exploratory Study Of Relationships Between Law Students' Well-Being, Academic Success, And Perceptions Of Passing The Bar Exam And Admission, Pamela Shea

Theses and Dissertations

This study explores the experiences of law students that impact their perception of being prepared for the Bar Exam and Bar admission. Analyzing the stressors law students face during law school reveals the essential need to incorporate the eight dimensions of well-being into curricular, co-curricular, and extra-curricular activities for students to flourish as they prepare for post-graduation success. Using the data from the 2021 Survey of Law Student Well-Being, which surveyed 5,865 law students from thirty-nine ABA-accredited law schools, a three-factor model was created to group students’ concerns into academic and health concerns, social and environmental concerns, and well-being behavioral …

Experimental And Computational Insights Into Reservoir Rock Mechanics And Petrophysical Properties, Prasad Pothana

Theses and Dissertations

This dissertation investigates the influence of stress, mineralogy, and microstructure on the elastic and transport properties of reservoir rocks. A multi-scale framework integrating laboratory measurements, petrophysical inversion, and discrete-element simulations is developed to quantify the stress-dependent behavior of heterogeneous sedimentary formations relevant to hydrocarbon production and CO2 sequestration.

Core-scale experiments quantify velocity–effective stress and permeability–effective stress relationships in tight siliciclastic and mixed lithologies. Results demonstrate that pore-throat collapse and microcrack closure under confining stress cause systematic reductions in permeability and acoustic velocities. The derived empirical functions provide predictive capability for estimating in-situ stress effects on reservoir performance and time-lapse seismic …

More Than Peyote: Trauma, Healing, And The Politics Of Indigenous Cultural Survival In The Age Of Psychedelic Colonialism, Christine Diindiisi Mccleave

Indigenous Studies

This dissertation examines the intersection of peyote religion, historical trauma, and the emergent psychedelic movement through a critical Indigenous lens. Centering peyote as both a sacred medicine and a symbolic flashpoint, the study highlights how contemporary psychedelic policy, practice, and commercialization perpetuate settler-colonial paradigms and threaten Indigenous cultural survival. While mainstream narratives frame psychedelics as tools for healing, this research emphasizes how such framing often obscures deeper histories of dispossession, cultural appropriation, and epistemic violence. Using a mixed-methods approach, including 50 anonymous survey responses, 13 qualitative interviews, and a 6-person focus group, this study amplifies the voices of tribal citizens …

Developing A LingíT Cultural Learning Theory, Eldri Waid Westmoreland

Indigenous Studies

This dissertation develops a Lingít cultural learning theory grounded in ancestral knowledge, cultural values, and intergenerational oral histories. Rooted in Indigenous methodologies and guided by Grounded Theory, the study explores how Lingít ways of knowing, centered on relationships, reciprocity, and respect can inform and transform educational practices for all learners and teachers. Through open-ended interviews and archival transcripts, participants recalled their earliest learning experiences using sensory memory and each identified emotional safety as a key factor for engagement in the learning process. These narratives revealed four foundational themes: processes, patterns, principles, and purposes of learning. The resulting theory honors the …

The Music & The Movement: Race, Rhythm, And Social Justice, Renee Nicole Allen -- Associate Professor Of Law

Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment & Technology Law

From Billie Holiday’s “Strange Fruit” to Public Enemy’s “Fight the Power” to J. Cole’s “Be Free,” music has played a vital role in energizing social justice movements and elevating the legal and social issues facing Black people. An examination into the legal, historical, and social contexts for the music created during ten key movements in Black history reveals the role of lyrics and rhythm. Through the lens of music, ten movements—Freedom, Lynching, the Great Migration, Civil Rights, Black Power, Black Feminism, Police Brutality, Mass Incarceration, Black Love, and Black Lives Matter—demonstrate that Black music is more than entertainment. It is …

Is Noise Exposure Associated With Impaired Extended High Frequency Hearing Despite A Normal Audiogram? A Systematic Review And Meta-Analysis, Sajana Aryal, Monica Trevino, Hansapani Rodrigo, Srikanta K. Mishra

School of Mathematical & Statistical Sciences Faculty Publications

Understanding the initial signature of noise-induced auditory damage remains a significant priority. Animal models suggest the cochlear base is particularly vulnerable to noise, raising the possibility that early-stage noise exposure could be linked to basal cochlear dysfunction, even when thresholds at 0.25-8 kHz are normal. To investigate this in humans, we conducted a meta-analysis following a systematic review, examining the association between noise exposure and hearing in frequencies from 9 to 20 kHz as a marker for basal cochlear dysfunction. Systematic review and meta-analysis followed PRISMA guidelines and the PICOS framework. Studies on noise exposure and hearing in the 9 …

Island-Based Evolutionary Computation With Diverse Surrogates And Adaptive Knowledge Transfer For High-Dimensional Data-Driven Optimization, Xianrong Zhang, Yuejiao Gong, Zhiguang Cao, Jun Zhang

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in data-driven evolutionary algorithms (DDEAs) employing surrogate models to approximate the objective functions with limited data. However, current DDEAs are primarily designed for lower-dimensional problems and their performance drops significantly when applied to large-scale optimization problems (LSOPs). To address the challenge, this paper proposes an offline DDEA named DSKT-DDEA. DSKT-DDEA leverages multiple islands that utilize different data to establish diverse surrogate models, fostering diverse subpopulations and mitigating the risk of premature convergence. In the intra-island optimization phase, a semi-supervised learning method is devised to fine-tune the surrogates. It not only facilitates …

Digital Communications Between Firms And Investors: Impact Of Explanatory Responses On Investor Engagement In Online Financial Q&A, Runyu Wang, Zili Zhang, Keng Siau, Ziqiong Zhang

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

The emerging trend of digital communications between firms and investors through online question-and-answer (Q&A) platforms is recognized as a vital strategy for managing investor relations, contributing to enhanced market efficiency and information transparency through increased information exchange. Potential investors can seek responses from firm managers to address their information needs, thereby mitigating market uncertainties. To provide foundational insights, we conduct a survey of investors to assess their awareness, usage, and perceptions of firm-investor Q&A platforms. In the subsequent empirical study, we specifically focus on the substance of managers’ responses, which are primarily aimed at clarifying firm events or information. In …

Contx: Scene Context Prediction Via Context Bank And Layout Perception, Jingxin Liang, Yangyang Xu, Haorui Song, Yuan Lu, Yuhui Deng, Yiyi Long, Yan Huang, Shengxin Liu, Jianbo Jiao, Shengfeng He

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Scene context prediction, which seeks to infer unknown contextual information from isolated object properties, currently faces limitations due to predominant reliance on pixel-wise supervision that overlooks real-world context priors. To address this, we present ContX, a context-prior-driven, coarse-to-fine model. ContX distinctively integrates explicit linguistic-contextual knowledge in two key ways. First, it proposes a linguistic guided context bank, leveraging linguistic-statistical contextual data to guide the rationality of segmentation shapes and foster meaningful inter-class contextual interactions. Second, ContX augments contextual comprehension by correlating layouts with linguistic descriptions, enhancing layout perception through a multi-modal strategy. Comprehensive experiments demonstrate ContX's superiority and versatility, outperforming …

Backdoorllm: A Comprehensive Benchmark For Backdoor Attacks And Defenses On Large Language Models, Yige Li, Hanxun Huang, Yunhan Zhao, Xingjun Ma, Jun Sun

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Generative large language models (LLMs) have achieved state-of-the-art results on a wide range of tasks, yet they remain susceptible to backdoor attacks: carefully crafted triggers in the input can manipulate the model to produce adversaryspecified outputs. While prior research has predominantly focused on backdoor risks in vision and classification settings, the vulnerability of LLMs in open-ended text generation remains underexplored. To fill this gap, we introduce BackdoorLLM1 , the first comprehensive benchmark for systematically evaluating backdoor threats in text-generation LLMs. BackdoorLLM provides: (i) a unified repository of benchmarks with a standardized training and evaluation pipeline; (ii) a diverse suite of …

A Learning‑Augmented Dynamic Programming Approach For Orienteering Problem With Time Windows, Guansheng Peng, Lining Xing, Fuyan Song Ma, Aldy Gunawan, Aldy Gunawan

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Recent years have witnessed a surge of interest in solving combinatorial optimization problems (COPs) using machine learning techniques. Motivated by this trend, we propose a learning-augmented exact approach for tackling an NP-hard COP, the Orienteering Problem with Time Windows, which aims to maximize the total score collected by visiting a subset of vertices in a graph within their time windows. Traditional exact algorithms rely heavily on domain expertise and meticulous design, making it hard to achieve further improvements. By leveraging deep learning models to learn effective relaxations of problem restrictions from data, our approach enables significant performance gains in an …

Sopo: Text-To-Motion Generation Using Semi-Online Preference Optimization, Xiaofeng Tan, Hongsong Wang, Xin Geng, Pan Zhou

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Text-to-motion generation is essential for advancing the creative industry but often presents challenges in producing consistent, realistic motions. To address this, we focus on fine-tuning text-to-motion models to consistently favor highquality, human-preferred motions—a critical yet largely unexplored problem. In this work, we theoretically investigate the DPO under both online and offline settings, and reveal their respective limitation: overfitting in offline DPO, and biased sampling in online DPO. Building on our theoretical insights, we introduce Semi-online Preference Optimization (SoPo), a DPO-based method for training text-to-motion models using “semi-online” data pair, consisting of unpreferred motion from online distribution and preferred motion in …

Hybrid-Balance Gflownet For Solving Vehicle Routing Problems, Ni Zhang, Zhiguang Cao

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Existing GFlowNet-based methods for vehicle routing problems (VRPs) typically employ Trajectory Balance (TB) to achieve global optimization but often neglect important aspects of local optimization. While Detailed Balance (DB) addresses local optimization more effectively, it alone falls short in solving VRPs, which inherently require holistic trajectory optimization. To address these limitations, we introduce the Hybrid-Balance GFlowNet (HBG) framework, which uniquely integrates TB and DB in a principled and adaptive manner by aligning their intrinsically complementary strengths. Additionally, we propose a specialized inference strategy for depot-centric scenarios like the Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem (CVRP), leveraging the depot node's greater flexibility in …

Uniteformer: Unifying Node And Edge Modalities In Transformers For Vehicle Routing Problem, Dian Meng, Zhiguang Cao, Jie Gao, Yaoxin Wu, Yaqing Hou

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Neural solvers for the Vehicle Routing Problem (VRP) have typically relied on either node or edge inputs, limiting their flexibility and generalization in real-world scenarios. We propose UniteFormer, a unified neural solver that supports node-only, edge-only, and hybrid input types through a single model trained via joint edge-node modalities. UniteFormer introduces: (1) a mixed encoder that integrates graph convolutional networks and attention mechanisms to collaboratively process node and edge features, capturing cross-modal interactions between them; and (2) a parallel decoder enhanced with query mapping and a feed-forward layer for improved representation. The model is trained with REINFORCE by randomly sampling …