Digital Commons Network^™

Use Of Sunlight Differs Between Sympatric Garter Snakes In Montane Riparian Forests, Ethan T. Chatwood, David R. Tevs

University of Montana Conference on Undergraduate Research (UMCUR)

Microhabitat selection by small ectotherms often involves trade-offs between accommodating the thermoregulatory needs of the organism and minimizing predation. Sunny microhabitats are often used as basking sites by small ectotherms. However, sunlight may also increase chromatic contrast between the animal and its substrate, thereby increasing visibility to potential predators. To counter this increased exposure, small ectotherms may develop means to remain hidden in sunny areas or achieving suitable body temperatures while in shaded areas. We collected data on substrate temperature, light conditions, observation time, and behavior (active vs stationary) between two sympatric garter snake species with contrasting dorsal colorations (Thamnophis …

Evaluating Strategies To Reduce Human-Bear Conflicts: A Synthetic Review, Cailin K. Bell

University of Montana Conference on Undergraduate Research (UMCUR)

Human-wildlife conflicts involving large carnivores, such as bears, pose a significant challenge to conservation efforts. As humans encroach into wildlands, expanding overlap with black bear populations, their interactions and conflicts increase. Conflicts are defined as any action by bears resulting in the destruction of property or threatening public safety. Though conflicts continue to rise, it is difficult to determine the effectiveness of different approaches for prioritizing management actions. To address this gap, this study conducted a synthetic review, identifying current approaches being used, the effectiveness of these methods, and which of these may be useful for Montana. Google Scholar was …

Investigation Of Guanine Exchange By Ric8a For Gαi, Fiona Morrow, Brad Benjamin, Cindee Yates-Hansen, Nicholas O'Connor

University of Montana Conference on Undergraduate Research (UMCUR)

Author: Fiona Morrow

Conference: 2026 UMCUR

Title: Investigation of Guanine Exchange by Ric8A for Gα_i

Abstract: Ric8 is a chaperone protein for the Gα subunit of the G protein coupled receptor, the most common and diverse membrane receptor group in eukaryotic cells. Signal transduction across the cell membrane uses the G protein complex, with an integral G protein that spans the entire membrane and 3 bound subunits on the interior side of the membrane. When a ligand binds on the GPCR, the 3 interior subunits dissociate and carry the signal to the next step of the cascade; this dissociation …

Effectiveness Of Common Treatment Approaches On Pain And Disability For Chronic Low Back Pain, Brooke Williams

University of Montana Conference on Undergraduate Research (UMCUR)

Low back pain is the leading cause of disability in adults worldwide. Common treatment approaches for low back pain include chiropractic care, physical therapy, medical care, and educational interventions. Although some randomized controlled trials have compared specific treatments, few studies have synthesized outcomes across multiple treatment approaches to determine relative effectiveness in individuals with chronic low back pain. This study performed a quantitative comparative analysis using aggregated data from published randomized controlled trials. Treatment groups included chiropractic care, physical therapy, medical care, and educational interventions. Outcomes related to disability, pain intensity, and symptom bothersomeness were assessed using the Roland Morris …

Ligand Induced Mincle Dimerization For Informing Tuberculosis Adjuvant Formulation, Ephraim Neils Mortenson, Asia Riel, Cindee Yates-Hansen, Borries Demeler

University of Montana Conference on Undergraduate Research (UMCUR)

Macrophage Inducible C-Type Lectin receptor (Mincle) is a pattern recognition receptor on myeloid cells, which modulates the immune system by recognizing small molecules that activate the signaling cascade to release inflammatory and immune response mediators. [1] C-type lectin receptors have been known to form higher order structures to produce elevated, coordinated immune responses. However, this has not been fully established experimentally with Mincle and known ligands. [2,3] Stabilized by an extracellular disulfide bond, Mincle in mammalian cells can exist as a preformed dimer. [3] This suggests that activation-induced oligomerization in Mincle could be a ligand-specifying factor in the type and …

Rhythms Of Learning, Eli W. Flaim

University of Montana Conference on Undergraduate Research (UMCUR)

Rhythms of Learning

Eli Flaim

Traditional Western education has typically assumed that learning occurs best at a desk in a classroom. However, much of my personal development has taken place outdoors and in motion through participating in and facilitating experiential learning. My capstone project aims to bridge these two worlds by exploring how outdoor education can be effectively integrated into higher education without necessitating wilderness expeditions or significant structural changes. I will discuss my journey in developing this project and share the findings of my research, highlighting the importance of outdoor education and practical ways to implement it in the …

A Night In The Life Of A Female Japanese Rhinoceros Beetle, Wyatt J. Benson Mr.

University of Montana Conference on Undergraduate Research (UMCUR)

A Night in the Life of a Female Japanese Rhinoceros Beetle

During the height of the mating season, Japanese rhinoceros beetle (Trypoxylus dichotomus) males aggregate on trees to fight against rivals over access to females. Males in this species are very well studied for their charismatic, large horns that constitute up to 30% of their body weight. However, winning fights is not enough to guarantee matings. Males must still perform complex courtship songs on the backs of females, and surprisingly, females ultimately choose only one male to mate with. Females may evaluate male quality via these songs, which serve as …

Alzheimer’S Is A Delivery Problem: A Neurosurgery-Enabled Evidence Map Of Focused Ultrasound Blood-Brain Barrier Opening As A Cns Delivery Platform, Gargee Sree Nallanukala, Veer Nallanukala, Lauren Noto-Bell, Jacquelyn Gerhart

Research Day

Introduction: Disease-modifying therapies for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) provide modest benefit in selected early-AD populations, but their use is limited by safety risks (e.g., amyloid-related imaging abnormalities [ARIA]) and intensive monitoring. A key reason many therapies underperform is that the blood–brain barrier (BBB) acts like a protective “filter,” allowing only a small fraction of systemically delivered drugs, especially large molecules, to reach the brain. MRI-guided focused ultrasound, paired with intravenously administered microbubbles, can temporarily and locally “loosen” the BBB at a chosen brain region, then allow it to reseal. This approach is being studied as a noninvasive delivery platform that could …

Cardioprotective Role Of Spermidine In Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury, Isabella Brosious, Robert J. Barsotti, Lindon H. Young, Qian Chen

Research Day

Introduction: Timely reperfusion of the heart to restore blood flow and oxygen is critical to rescue ischemic myocardium in the setting of myocardial infarction and reduce cardiac morbidity and mortality. However, reperfusion following prolonged ischemic injury exhibits salvaging, but paradoxically, additional cellular damage, contributing to a larger infarct size. Termed ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), the myocardium undergoes various pathophysiological changes following reperfusion – such as apoptosis, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction – thus exacerbating cellular damage and death caused by ischemic injury. The research on attenuation of IRI is critical to maximize the benefit of reperfusion. Spermidine is a natural polyamine …

Significant Response To Third-Line Zenocutuzumab In Metastatic Nrg1 Fusion–Positive Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma: A Case Study, Sarah Davis, Sukhrob Makhkamov, Vladimir Limonnik

Research Day

Background

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is an aggressive malignancy with limited treatment options. In metastatic disease, first‑line regimens like FOLFIRINOX or gemcitabine plus nab‑paclitaxel provide modest survival benefits and are commonly limited by toxicity and disease progression.

Recent advances in precision oncology have identified genomic alterations in a subset of pancreatic cancers. Neuregulin‑1 (NRG1) gene fusions occur in < 1% of pancreatic adenocarcinomas and lead to activation of HER3 signaling through interaction with HER2, promoting tumor growth and survival.

Zenocutuzumab is a bispecific monoclonal antibody designed to target HER2 and HER3. By binding HER2 and preventing ligand-induced activation of HER3, zenocutuzumab disrupts NRG1-driven signaling while preserving HER2 receptor engagement for antibody-mediated targeting. In the eNRGy trial, zenocutuzumab achieved an objective response rate of …

Osteoporosis Is A Risk Factor For Complications And Reoperations At 1 And 3-Years After Arthroscopic Rotator Cuff Repair, Cameron M. Brown, Andrea H. Johnson, Jane C. Brennan, Matthew A. Peterman, Daniel E. Redziniak, Justin Turcotte

Research Day

Introduction

Osteoporosis is associated with compromised bone quality and healing potential. Arthroscopic rotator cuff repair (RCR) restores shoulder function and reduces pain in patients with rotator cuff pathology. The influence of osteoporosis on complications and long-term outcomes following RCR remains underexplored. This study aims to evaluate the relationship between osteoporosis and outcomes after arthroscopic RCR.

Methods

The PearlDiver Mariner 170 dataset was retrospectively analyzed. Patients were grouped by whether they had a diagnosis of osteoporosis within the year prior to RCR. The two groups were propensity score matched 1:1 on age, gender, and comorbidities. Outcomes were assessed at 1-year and …

Evaluating Motivation In Stem Education: A Positive Self-Talk Intervention, Tiffany Copeland, Richard Allen, Sophia Pham, Kristin Gagnier

Research Day

INTRODUCTION: This study evaluated a social-emotional learning intervention that taught positive self-talk to high school students from underrepresented minority groups in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). The setting of this study was a place-based program that immersed students in hands-on STEM activities while located in Philadelphia’s life science hub. Before taking a science assessment, students set effort-based goals and learned to say self-talk statements such as “I will give my best effort” and “Even when it's hard, I will give 100%.”

METHODS: This mixed-methods program evaluation compared pre- and post-intervention data using a paired-samples t-test, linear regression, and correlation …

A Case Of Extensive Suprasellar Meningioma Presenting With Insidious Visual Impairment, Vincent Bulzoni, Benedict Uzorka, Peter Maduka Jr

Research Day

Introduction: Meningiomas are generally benign CNS tumors with a propensity to occur in individuals with predisposing risk factors, such as, neurofibromatosis type II. These tumors can arise via de novo mutations, or through inheritance via NF2, and SMARCB1 mutations. They can also arise idiopathically. In this case, A 33-year-old female presented to the ophthalmology clinic for a routine diabetic fundus exam. She also complained of worsening left eye (OS) vision, which had historically been her weaker eye. She had been a type II diabetic for 2.5 years with a most recent HbA1c of 13.6. The patient reported poor OS vision …

Neutralization Of Interferon-Beta Promotes Hivspecific Car T Cell Engraftment And Proliferation, Tyler H. Yang, Sophia Mohammed, Matt Fair, Colby Maldini, Zhe Yuan, Luis Montaner, Daniel Claiborne

Research Day

Introduction: Even in antiretroviral therapy-treated people with HIV (PWH) exhibiting controlled viremia, infection is characterized by a sustained activation of type I interferon (IFN) pathways. Indeed, IFNβ is persistently expressed in the tissues of PWH, and the anti-proliferative effect of IFNβ represents an unappreciated hurdle to immunotherapies aimed at achieving an HIV functional cure.

Objectives: The primary objectives are to i) characterize the anti-proliferative effects of IFNβ on HIV-specific CAR T cells, ii) describe the mechanism(s) underlying IFNβ-mediated attenuation of CAR T cell function, and iii) devise base-editing strategies to ameliorate the negative effects of IFNβ on HIV-specific CAR T …

The Effects Of Bone Health And Variation On Saw Mark Signatures, Lily A. Ambrose, Richard A. Gonzalez

Research Day

Introduction

Bone health and structural variation are multifactorial. Population, environment, age, diet, and health influence the overall functional morphology of bone and its response to stressors. Reduced cortical porosity, trabecular thinning, and low bone mass are common indicators of age-related and pathological changes, affecting a significant portion of the population. Because of this, bones encountered in medicolegal investigations often differ from what is considered “normal.” The structural integrity of bone needs to be considered because density influences mechanical strength and response to external forces.

In criminal dismemberment cases, forensic scientists analyze saw marks to identify tool class and reconstruct events. …

Gut–Brain Reprogramming Induced By Acute And Chronic Pathogen Exposures: The Role Of G Protein–Coupled Receptors In Male Aggression, Julia L. Kunau, Ashlyn E. Phillips

University of Montana Conference on Undergraduate Research (UMCUR)

Gut–Brain Reprogramming Induced by Acute and Chronic Pathogen Exposures: The Role of G Protein–Coupled Receptors in Male Aggression

Kunau, J, Phillips, A, Isern, E., and Certel, S. Division of Biological Sciences, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States.

Organisms must continuously interpret environmental change and rapidly adjust physiology and behavior. Ingested microbes are a powerful, understudied driver of this process because they can reshape gut to brain communication and alter behaviors such as feeding and aggression. Here we test whether acute, 24-hour ingestion of E. coli is sufficient to shift male aggression in Drosophila.

The gastrointestinal system communicates with …

Vaginal Rectopexy For Rectal Prolapse In Advanced Pelvic Organ Prolapse: A Review Of Surgical Strategies, Williams Cheau, Ebony Isagba, Mykala Jackson, Sabirah Smith, Alexandria Neal

Research Day

Pelvic organ prolapse (POP) is a common condition in women, frequently involving the anterior or posterior vaginal compartments. While biologic grafts are increasingly used in cystocele repair, their application in rectocele repair remains rare and underreported.

A 61-year-old female presented with fecal incontinence, mixed urinary incontinence, and symptomatic pelvic organ prolapse, including a stage II midline cystocele, rectocele, and suspected rectal prolapse. She was scheduled for anterior and posterior vaginal wall repair.

This case illustrates a novel use of biologic grafting in rectocele repair with concurrent rectal prolapse management. While graft use in anterior repairs is becoming more common, its …

Severe Postpartum Hypertension And Acute Heart Failure Exacerbation In A 34-Year-Old African American Woman: Implications For Maternal Mortality And Racial Disparities, R. Neha Vangimalla, Allison J. Tresner, Christine A. Lurie

Research Day

Introduction: Postpartum hypertension and cardiomyopathy remain significant contributors to maternal morbidity and mortality in the United States, disproportionately affecting African American women. We present the case of a 34-year-old African American G6P3124 with a history of chronic hypertension and suspected peripartum cardiomyopathy. The patient presented four days postpartum with acute shortness of breath and orthopnea. Pregnancy was complicated by poorly controlled underlying chronic hypertension with worsening dyspnea requiring induction of labor at 36 weeks gestational age (GA) and prior hospitalization for volume overload, dyspnea, and COVID-19 at 33 weeks GA.

Case Description: On presentation, the patient was found to have …

Socioeconomic Determinants Of Hypertension And Complications In Georgia: Age-Stratified Analysis Of The All Of Us Cohort, Daniel Chanelo, Marisela Benitez, Thomas Last

Research Day

Introduction: Hypertension (HTN) contributes disproportionately to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in Georgia. While demographic disparities in prevalence are well characterized, less is understood about how socioeconomic conditions shape both hypertension risk and downstream complication burden. We examined two questions: Question A - what factors are associated with hypertension presence compared to controls, and Question B - among hypertensive patients, what factors predict complications, with particular interest in whether associations varied by age stratum.

Methods: Retrospective cohort study using the All of Us Controlled Tier dataset. Hypertension required ≥2 diagnostic codes. Participants were restricted to Georgia ZIP3 prefixes (300–319, 398), yielding …

Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm As A Marker Of Systemic Atherosclerosis In A Patient With Prior Coronary Bypass And Fatal Middle Cerebral Artery Stroke: A Cadaveric Case Study, Jordan B. Ahlgren, Azmeer Imran, Rachel K. Ransom, Akosua A. Crumbsy, Lindsey D. Cohen, Angela V. Covington, Mphatso J. Onyekachi, Shiv Dhiman

Research Day

INTRODUCTION: Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is frequently associated with systemic atherosclerotic disease and increased risk for cardiovascular morbidity. The development of AAA is attributed to hypertension, smoking tobacco, and other factors such as genetics. Patients with vascular diseases also develop multisystem involvement, including coronary, cerebrovascular, and cardiac conduction abnormalities. The purpose of this case study was to investigate the role artherosclerotic disease played the in the fatal left middle cerebral artery (MCA) ischemic stroke of a 75-year-old male with a visible abdominal aortic aneurysm, history of coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), and permanent pacemaker implantation.

METHODS: Systematic gross anatomical dissection …

Case Report Highlights Disproportionate Health Outcomes Of Rheumatoid Arthritis In Patients Of Lower Socioeconomic Status, Victoria Pfennig, Karen Vega

Research Day

Introduction

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease that affects the synovial lining of joints and may lead to progressive joint destruction, disability, and premature mortality if inadequately treated. Increasing evidence demonstrates that social determinants of health, particularly socioeconomic status (SES), significantly influence disease outcomes in patients with RA. Studies have shown that individuals of lower SES experience higher disease activity scores, greater physical disability, and poorer quality of life compared with patients of higher SES. Additionally, lower SES has been associated with longer delays between diagnosis and initiation of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), contributing to disease progression …

Targeting Dysbiosis: Rebyota As A Novel Strategy For Recurrent Cdi Prevention, Christina Cologer, Mishel Alvarez, Sia Christine, Brooklyn Myers, Kaytlin Pal, Katrina Strand, Vicky Mody, Shashidharamurthy Taval

Research Day

Clostridioides difficile is a bacterium that colonizes a patient's gastrointestinal tract after the use of systemic antibiotics. This infection, also called CDI, causes severe diarrhea and can be life-threatening. In some patients, CDI recurs, creating a dangerous cycle. Recurrent CDI (rCDI) persists because systemic antibiotics induce dysbiosis, disrupting the gut microbiota’s metabolic functions and compromising the intestinal epithelial barrier. This study was conducted as a literature review evaluating the safety, efficacy, mechanism of action, and clinical use of Rebyota in preventing rCDI. Rebyota is the first FDA-approved (2023) live biotherapeutic designed to restore eubiosis in adult patients after antibiotic treatment. …

Histologic Heterogeneity In Bladder Neoplasia: Identification Of Coexisting Urothelial Dysplasia, Papillary Lesions Of Low Malignant Potential, And Muscle-Invasive Urothelial Carcinoma, Maxwell Trettin, Yousra Abo-Elhamd, Aidan Huckestein, Byron Her, Xiunely Ricano Cadenas, Shiv Dhiman, Rasheed Agboola, Neveen Said

Research Day

BACKGROUND: Urothelial bladder carcinoma (UBC) accounts for approximately 90% of bladder cancers with a male to female prevalence of 3:1. Established risk factors include exposure to tobacco smoking, and environmental and occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aromatic amines. Additional risk factors include air pollution, advanced age, and occupational exposure to carcinogens present in dyes, paints, petroleum products, and metals. UBC are recognized for their heterogeneous characteristics due to urothelial epithelium exhibiting diverse transcriptional and mutational profiles that evolve within the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, bladder cancers are often found to be multifocal, highlighting the importance of thorough examination of …

Feasibility Of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation For Treatment-Resistant Depression In Rural Healthcare Settings: A Case Series, Posey Kent, Brandon Krout, Kennedy Johnson, Jodeci Mitchell, Hania Hashmi, Blessing Adeyemo, Ashlee Cook

Research Day

Introduction

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the most common mental health disorders world- wide, with up to one-third of patients experiencing treatment-resistant depression despite adequate pharmacologic therapy. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is an FDA-approved, noninvasive treatment shown to improve depressive symptoms in treatment-resistant depression. However, access to advanced psychiatric interventions remains limited in rural communities due to provider shortages, transportation barriers, and socioeconomic challenges. Despite established efficacy in urban and academic settings, limited data exist on the feasibility and real-world outcomes of TMS implementation in rural healthcare settings. The purpose of this study is to highlight the feasibility …

Comparison Of Axillary Lymph Node Size In Cadavers With And Without A History Of Breast Cancer, Adam E. Davis, Harshita Yepuri, Julia Girgis, Sara Kurtovic, Celeste Pak, Erek Arsiniega, Jasdeep Singh, Michael B. Roberts, Shelley Dicecco

Research Day

Axillary lymph nodes play a critical role in breast cancer metastasis and staging. While imaging and surgical studies provide indirect assessments of nodal involvement, few investigations have directly compared lymph node size in breast cancer and non-cancer populations using cadaveric dissection. In this study, twenty-nine female cadavers, including eight with a history of breast cancer and twenty-one controls, were dissected to collect axillary lymph nodes from six anatomical chains: central, humeral, infraclavicular, parasternal, pectoral, and subscapular. Lymph node area (mm²) was measured, and statistical outliers (z ≥ 3) were excluded from analysis. Welch’s t-test was performed to compare overall lymph …

Genetic Architecture Of Coronary Atherosclerosis Across European, African, And Admixed American Populations Using All Of Us Research Program Data, Kensley Philemond, Jodeci L. Mitchell, Thomas J. Last

Research Day

Introduction:

Coronary atherosclerosis, the underlying pathology of most coronary artery disease, is characterized by the accumulation of lipid-rich plaques within the coronary arteries, leading to increased cardiovascular risk. Established genes such as LDLR highlight the importance of lipid metabolism in disease pathogenesis, yet population-specific genetic contributors in African and Admixed American populations remain poorly understood. Identifying additional genetic contributors may improve our understanding of disease mechanisms and support more equitable cardiovascular risk prediction tools.

Methods:

We analyzed Genome Wide Association Study (GWAS) summary statistics from the All of Us Research Program using the All-by-All Research Browser to identify genetic variants …

A Rare Case Of Suspected Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser Syndrome: A Comparative Review Of Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome, Olivia G. Deloach, Caroline R. Kebberly, Zoë M. Rushetsky, Sreehitha Sanku, Mariah Smith, Marcel Castor

Research Day

Mayer–Rokitansky–Küster–Hauser (MRKH) syndrome and androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) are two distinct disorders of sexual development that can present with similar clinical features, including primary amenorrhea, an absent uterus, and typical female external genitalia.

We present the case of a 27-year-old female who died following a motor vehicle accident and was found to have congenital absence of the uterus, cervix, and upper vagina, consistent with MRKH syndrome. MRKH occurs in phenotypic females with normal ovarian function, whereas AIS presents similarly but occurs in genotypic males with absent Müllerian structures and no ovaries.

This case was identified incidentally during an autopsy at …

Many Genomes, One Disease: Genetic Risk Of Hidradenitis Suppurativa Across Ancestries, Sydney E. Williams, Nadine Belony, Thomas Last

Research Day

Introduction

Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the folliculopilosebaceous unit affecting intertriginous areas including the axillae, groin, buttocks, and inframammary regions. It presents with recurrent painful nodules, abscesses, sinus tracts, and scarring, leading to substantial physical and psychosocial burden. Up to 40% of patients report severe quality-of-life impairment, with strong associations to depression and work disability. HS disproportionately affects individuals of African ancestry and demonstrates disparities in disease burden. Despite its clinical impact, the genetic architecture of HS remains incompletely defined, particularly across diverse populations. Although rare familial cases implicate γ-secretase pathway mutations, broader genetic contributors to …

Understanding The Genetic Basis Of Keloid Susceptibility Through Multi-Ancestry Genomic Studies, Nadine Belony, Sydney Williams, Thomas Last

Research Day

Introduction

Keloids are benign fibroproliferative skin tumors arising from dysregulated wound healing and characterized by excessive extracellular matrix deposition. Although nonmalignant, they are frequently associated with pain, pruritus, restricted mobility, and significant cosmetic disfigurement, resulting in substantial impairment in quality of life. The burden of keloid disease is not uniformly distributed across populations, with higher prevalence and severity observed among individuals of African ancestry, suggesting biologic contributors to disease susceptibility. Despite these disparities, mechanisms underlying pathologic scarring remain incompletely defined. Improved characterization of shared and ancestry-specific contributors may advance understanding of dermal fibrosis and support equitable dermatologic care.

Methods

We …

Mining Bacterial Genome: Identifying Unkown Bacterial Immune Systems, Mason Z. Mazzola

University of Montana Conference on Undergraduate Research (UMCUR)

Bacterial viruses, called bacteriophages, constitute a major threat to bacteria, driving a vast evolutionary arms race three billion years in the making. Out of this arms race bacteria have developed numerous types of bacterial immune systems varying in levels of complexity. The most notable bacterial immune system, CRISPR-Cas, is a suite of bacterial proteins which have enabled life-saving technologies through gene-editing and revolutionized biological research. CRISPR is only one of hundreds of anti-phage immune systems, most of which remain undiscovered. Since antimicrobial resistance in bacterial pathogens is rising, one solution to the crisis is using phages to kill pathogenic bacteria. …