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Spartan Daily, October 1, 2025, San Jose State University, School Of Journalism And Mass Communications

Spartan Daily, 2025

Volume 165, Issue 17

Examining Stress And Anxiety Levels Among Undergraduate Music Majors At The University Of South Carolina, Elise F. Halbig

Senior Theses

The purpose of this study was to examine the stress and anxiety levels among undergraduate music majors at the University of South Carolina (USC) and identify potential stressors that might be unique or more prevalent among that specific population. To evaluate this, a questionnaire consisting of 42 questions was administered to participants. Most of the questions were carefully developed by the researcher; however, the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al, 1983) was used to examine participants' stress levels, and 13 selected questions from the Burns Anxiety Inventory (Burns, 1989) were used to examine their anxiety levels. A total of 45 …

Teaching While Stressed: How Mental Support Is Impacting The Teaching Experience In South Carolina, Olivia Striedl

Senior Theses

Teacher shortages are a widespread issue within both the United States and South Carolina. One cause of high numbers of teachers leaving their positions is low job-satisfaction and high stress levels. In this study of teacher mental health in South Carolina, eight teachers were interviewed regarding their experience with job-related stress and support offered to them. The interviews revealed that teachers experience high levels of stress, with many interviewees having stressors in common. Many participants had at least one experience in which stressors pushed them to leave or almost leave their position, showing the importance of mental health when considering …

Hungry Minds: Analyzing The Impact Of Food Insecurity And Food Assistance Programs On Neurocognitive Development And Childhood Mental Health, Kayla A. Davenport

Senior Theses

Introduction: Food insecurity affects millions of children in the United States and is increasingly recognized as a significant risk factor for poor nutritional intake and adverse health outcomes. However, less is known about how the experience of food insecurity disrupts healthy development and well-being, particularly among American youth. This thesis had two aims: (1) to examine the relationship between household food insecurity and children’s neurocognitive and mental health outcomes and (2) to evaluate how major food assistance programs address, or fail to address, these developmental risks.

Methods: This thesis uses a mixed-methods approach, integrating a narrative literature review, a cross-sectional …

Is It Enough? Investigating The Effectiveness Of Adhd Accommodations For College Students, Sreekavya Mekala

Senior Theses

This study explores the effectiveness of accommodations given by the University of South Carolina (USC) for students diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A total of 435 students completed a survey divided into three groups: those diagnosed with ADHD (n = 74), those not diagnosed but familiar with someone with ADHD (n = 321), and those not diagnosed and unfamiliar with ADHD (n = 40). Results showed that while most students with ADHD were aware of accommodations, far fewer used them, and many reported inconsistent faculty understanding and hesitation due to stigma. Students familiar with ADHD viewed accommodations as generally fair …

Populism And Its Effect On International Business Strategy, Julio Cesar Martinez Suarez

Theses and Dissertations

This dissertation investigates the complex relationship between populism and international business strategy, with a particular focus on how populist mobilizations influence firms' location decisions and strategic planning. As populism continues to shape political dynamics globally, it presents significant challenges for businesses operating in or considering entry into markets governed by populist regimes. Utilizing institutional theory, this study examines the distinct political risks associated with populism, including anti-establishment ideology, the weakening of democratic institutions, and a tendency toward short-term, reactive policymaking. The research explores the consequences of these risks for firms, particularly in emerging markets, where populism often exacerbates uncertainty and …

Fifth Edition Who Classification: Mature B-Cell Neoplasms, Kikkeri Naresh, Kennosuke Karube, Anita Borges, Wah Cheuk, Sumeet Gujral, Shahin Sayed, Aliyah Sohani, Stefano Lazzi, German Ott, Ming-Qing Du

Pathology, East Africa

We present a review of mature B-cell neoplasms as described in the fifth edition of the WHO classification of haematolymphoid tumours (WHO-HAEM5). Entities have expanded, and definitions are increasingly reliant on genomic and other technologies. However, the WHO-HAEM5 employs a hierarchical structure with family (class)-level definitions that group several specific entities. This approach enables the assignment of a family-level diagnosis when criteria for specific entities cannot be met due to resource constraints. To facilitate application in resource-limited settings, WHO-HAEM5 divides diagnostic criteria into ‘essential’ and desirable criteria for most entities. This review focuses on changes and updates in B-cell lymphoma …

Ethical Sourcing In The Context Of Health Data Supply Chain Management: A Value Sensitive Design Approach, Camille Nebeker, Jean Christophe Bélisle-Pipon, Benjamin X Collins, Ashley Cordes, Kadija Ferryman, Brian J Mcinnis, Shannon K Mcweeney, Laurie L Novak, Susannah Rose, Joseph M Yracheta, Ishan C Williams, Xiaoqian Jiang, Ellen W Clayton, Bradley A Malin, Bridge2ai Ethical, Legal And Social Implications Ai Working Group

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Objective: The Bridge2AI program is establishing rules of practice for creating ethically sourced health data repositories to support the effective use of ML/AI in biomedical and behavioral research. Given the initially undefined nature of ethically sourced data, this work concurrently developed definitions and guidelines alongside repository creation, grounded in a practical, operational framework.

Materials and methods: A Value Sensitive Design (VSD) approach was used to explore ethical tensions across stages of health data repository development. The conceptual investigation drew from supply chain management (SCM) processes to (1) identify actors who would interact with or be affected by the data repository …

Multiplexed Imaging Mass Cytometry Reveals Tumor-Immune Microenvironment-Dependent Hormone Receptor Expression In Adult-Type Ovarian Granulosa Cell Tumors, Eleonora Y Khlebus, Veena K Vuttaradhi, Sammy Ferri-Borgogno, Allison L Brodsky, Barrett C Lawson, Samuel C Mok, R Tyler Hillman

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Adult-type granulosa cell tumors (AGCT) are rare ovarian tumors with few effective treatments for recurrent disease. To elucidate spatial features and cellular interactions within the AGCT tumor microenvironment, we applied imaging mass cytometry using a 34-marker panel on 130 regions from 24 AGCT samples, profiling more than 900,000 single cells. Analysis confirmed the immune “cold” phenotype of AGCTs and showed higher macrophage abundance in recurrent compared with primary tumors. We observed substantial heterogeneity in tissue architecture across samples, including variable presence of FOXL2+ cells embedded in collagen-rich regions (FOXL2+COL1A1+ cells). Based on tumor microenvironment composition, we defined two AGCT subtypes: …

Site-Specific Drug Release Of Monomethyl Fumarate To Treat Oxidative Stress Disorders, Thomas D Avery, Jiahe Li, Dion J L Turner, Mohd S U Rasheed, Fisher R Cherry, Damian L Stachura, Fátima Rivera-Escalera, David M Ruiz, Michael J Lacagnina, Caitlyn M Gaffney, Clarissa Aguilar, Jingxian Yu, Yang Wang, Huan Xie, Dong Liang, Andrew J Shepherd, Andrew D Abell, Peter M Grace

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Treatment of diseases of oxidative stress through activation of the antioxidant nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (NRF2) is limited by systemic side effects. We chemically functionalize the NRF2 activator monomethyl fumarate to require Baeyer-Villiger oxidation for release of the active drug at sites of oxidative stress. This prodrug reverses chronic pain in mice with reduced side effects and could be applied to other disorders of oxidative stress.

Factors Associated With Medication Adherence Among Patients With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (Adhd), Linh Nguyen, Yen-Chi L Le, Hannah Reygaerts, Todd R Johnson, Cesar A Soutullo

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Objective: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a common behavioral health condition that impacts 5% to 8% of children and 2.5% of adults worldwide. The symptoms of ADHD are effectively managed with medication, yet patients with ADHD may inconsistently take their medication. We assessed medication adherence among patients with ADHD and identified factors associated with medication adherence that may be utilized to optimize adherence.

Method: This is a retrospective, observational study among patients aged 4 years and older with a diagnosis of ADHD at primary care and multispecialty outpatient clinics during May 2021 to May 2023. We assessed sociodemographic characteristics, stratified by …

Transfer Learning Via Distributed Brain Recordings Enables Reliable Speech Decoding, Aditya Singh, Tessy Thomas, Jinlong Li, Greg Hickok, Xaq Pitkow, Nitin Tandon

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Speech brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) combine neural recordings with large language models to achieve real-time intelligible speech. However, these decoders rely on dense, intact cortical coverage and are challenging to scale across individuals with heterogeneous brain organization. To derive scalable transfer learning strategies for neural speech decoding, we used minimally invasive stereo-electroencephalography recordings in a large cohort performing a demanding speech motor task. A sequence-to-sequence model enabled decoding of variable-length phonemic sequences prior to and during articulation. This enabled development of a cross-subject transfer learning framework to isolate shared latent manifolds while enabling individual model initialization. The group-derived decoder significantly outperformed …

Engaging Chinese And Korean American Communities In Dementia Research: A Journey Of Inclusivity And Partnership, Jing Wang, Xiang Qi, Mary S Mittelman, Eunjung Ko, Yaolin Pei, I Tek Leong, Sungji Park, Katherine Wang, Weiyu Mao, Cynthia Epstein, Bei Wu

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Introduction: The New York University Caregiver Intervention plus Enhanced Support Project is a randomized controlled trial of a family-based psychosocial intervention to enhance social support and reduce cardiometabolic risk for Chinese and Korean American dementia caregivers, using culturally tailored recruitment strategies.

Methods: We reviewed reflections from research staff, weekly meeting minutes, debriefing sessions, and progress reports, to identify key challenges and approaches to engaging participants.

Results: Key challenges included reluctance to involve family members, dementia stigma, and resistance to involving family. In response, we engaged online communities, partnered with local organizations, participated in events, and adapted recruitment messages to cultural …

Association Between Weight Stigma Experiences In Healthcare And Self-Reported Healthcare Avoidance In A National Sample., Kathleen M. Robinson, Aaron M. Scherer, Alithea N. Zorn, Michelle A. Mengeling, Helena Laroche

Manuscripts, Articles, Book Chapters and Other Papers

OBJECTIVES: Although weight stigma in healthcare is common, existing measures may not capture the full range of patients' weight stigma experiences in clinical practice. We aimed to examine how physical examination by healthcare providers, communication, and the built environment perpetuate weight stigma and impact healthcare avoidance. Items from the previously developed Weight Stigma in Healthcare Inventory (WSHCI) were tested to assess weight stigma experiences and assess association with healthcare avoidance.

METHODS: Two sample groups, identified through ResearchMatch and a Qualtrics survey panel, completed the WSHCI online. We analyzed the association between individual items and healthcare avoidance, and between a summation …

Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts As Mediators Of Tissue Microenvironment Remodeling In Cancer, Fernanda G Kugeratski, Emily J Kay, Sara Zanivan

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are a multifunctional cell population of solid tumors that substantially remodel the tumor microenvironment (TME). The combination of single-cell and spatial technologies with elegant mouse models and analysis of patient samples is enabling unprecedented advances in the characterization of CAF origins, heterogeneity, and functions within the TME. As such, the field is now evolving to delineate tissue-specific subpopulations of CAFs, their markers, and the biological context in which each subset presents with a tumor-promoting or a tumor-restraining function. In this timely review, we discuss recent advances in CAF biology in the context of emerging areas of interest …

Cancer-Induced Nerve Injury Promotes Resistance To Anti-Pd-1 Therapy, Erez N Baruch, Frederico O Gleber-Netto, Priyadharsini Nagarajan, Xiayu Rao, Shamima Akhter, Tuany Eichwald, Tongxin Xie, Mohammad Balood, Adebayo Adewale, Shorook Naara, Hinduja N Sathishkumar, Shajedul Islam, William Mccarthy, Brandi J Mattson, Renata Ferrarotto, Michael K Wong, Michael A Davies, Sonali Jindal, Sreyashi Basu, Karine Roversi, Amin Reza Nikpoor, Maryam Ahmadi, Ali Ahmadi, Catherine Harwood, Irene Leigh, Dennis Gong, Paulino Tallón De Lara, Derrick L Tao, Tara M Davidson, Nadim J Ajami, Andrew Futreal, Kunal Rai, Veena Kochat, Micah Castillo, Preethi Gunaratne, Ryan P Goepfert, Sharia D Hernandez, Nikhil I Khushalani, Jing Wang, Stephanie S Watowich, George A Calin, Michael R Migden, Mona Yuan, Naijiang Liu, Yi Ye, William L Hwang, Paola D Vermeer, Nisha J D'Silva, Yuri L Bunimovich, Dan Yaniv, Jared K Burks, Javier Gomez, Patrick M Dougherty, Kenneth Y Tsai, James P Allison, Padmanee Sharma, Jennifer A Wargo, Jeffrey N Myers, Sebastien Talbot, Neil D Gross, Moran Amit

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Perineural invasion (PNI) is a well-established factor of poor prognosis in multiple cancer types1, yet its mechanism remains unclear. Here we provide clinical and mechanistic insights into the role of PNI and cancer-induced nerve injury (CINI) in resistance to anti-PD-1 therapy. Our study demonstrates that PNI and CINI of tumour-associated nerves are associated with poor response to anti-PD-1 therapy among patients with cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma and gastric cancer. Electron microscopy and electrical conduction analyses reveal that cancer cells degrade the nerve fibre myelin sheets. The injured neurons respond by autonomously initiating IL-6- and type I interferon-mediated …

Chromosome 20q Gene Signature Associated With Colorectal Cancer Progression, Jennifer Carter Jones, Apurva M Hegde, Yu-Jing Huang, Ganiraju Manyam, Vibhuti Srivastava, Jee Hoo Song, Yulan Cheng, Ralf Krahe, Warapen Treekitkarnmongkol, Stephen J Meltzer, Scott Kopetz, Stanley R Hamilton, Hiroshi Katayama, Subrata Sen

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Amplification of human chromosome 20q has been reported as the most frequently recurring genetic abnormality associated with large scale changes in mRNA and protein levels in sporadic colorectal carcinomas. While some studies have found 20q amplification to be consistent between primary and metastatic samples from the same patient with a role in the development of metastasis and worse patient prognosis, others have reported association with improved overall survival for a subset of these patients with colorectal cancer (CRC). To fine map the Minimal Common Regions (MCRs) of amplification on chromosome 20q and identify the candidate genes playing roles in progression …

A Model Of Organizational Dynamics Of Phonological Knowledge In Preschool Children Based On Bratianu’S Theory And The Neutrosophic Ahp Technique, Glenda Quimera Ramírez-Apolo, Mila Inés Moreno-Pramatarova, Patricia Elizabeth Lima-Rosero, Sylvia Shayana Tapia-Tapia, María Soledad Andino-Acosta, Mercy Paulina Guerrero-Olalla, Ivonne Cristina Unda-Vargas, Salomé Ruales-Paredes

Neutrosophic Sets and Systems

Phonological knowledge is a component of linguistics that allows children to understand the relationship between sounds and words. It is a skill that should be stimulated and enhanced from the age of 3, as children begin the process of reading and writing at 6. If this component is not yet acquired, it can generate difficulties in the school stage, where learning demands are more challenging and higher cognitive processes are required in terms of decoding phonemes, graphemes, words, and sentences. In this paper, we propose a model that allows us to study the dynamics of phonological knowledge in preschool children. …

Analysis Of Customer Perception Of A New Product Using The Neutrosophic Biplot Method, Purificación Galindo-Villardón

Neutrosophic Sets and Systems

This paper sought to propose and apply the Neutrosophic Biplot analysis method to understand consumer perception of a new technological product with uncertain attributes while addressing the shortcomings that a conventional approach would present. Data was collected through a survey experiment with neutrosophic rating scales where 50 subjects slid on one scale to indicate how much they agreed (A), were neutral, or indifferent (I), and disagreed (D) about each of the eight features of a new smartphone they received. A neutrosophic data matrix was formed and converted into a real-valued matrix using a scoring function, allowing for the application of …

Analysis Of The Evolution Of Expert Opinion On Sustainability Policies Through The Neutrosophic Statis Method, Purificación Vicente Galindo

Neutrosophic Sets and Systems

Yet the problem of evaluating sustainability policies over time stems from needing to monitor the changing nature of expert agreement needed for dependency-based improvements in the environment. While this is undoubtedly helpful for relatively sustainable action, easier said than done requires methodological systems to assess how agreement grows and solidifies. Here it should be noted that the conventional STATIS approach, while successful in multivariate assessment, lacks the capacity to evaluate expert assessments factoring uncertainty, indeterminacy, and subjectivity. Therefore, this research goes on to fill this void with the neutrosophic STATIS method applied to a panel of experts assessing ten (10) …

Determining Factors For Minimizing Oven Downtime Through Controlled Batch Management: A Multineutrosophic Approach With Aras, Shakila Devi Gt, Sangeetha S, Maikel Yelandi Leyva Vazquez

Neutrosophic Sets and Systems

This study addresses a critical operational challenge in the baking industry: minimizing oven downtime through effective batch processing control. This study assesses which factors are the most critical contributors to minimizing downtime on batch processing operations to hypothesize efficiencies. But why is this problem? Sadly, much research has been done and found that ineffective resource allocation not only wastes funds but also increases carbon footprint for unnecessary baking, which is ironic since fresh products must drive demand at a low-cost. Furthermore, minimizing downtime allows for the more sustainability-oriented production that today's manufacturers are on the hook for. Therefore, testing new …

Neutrosophic Evaluation Of Sentiments Through Neutroalgebra Applied To The Use Of The Mediation Record As A Means For Lifting Precautionary Measures In Child Support Proceedings, Marcelo Raúl Dávila Castillo, Jessica Johanna Santander Moreno, Rosa Evelyn Chugá Quemac

Neutrosophic Sets and Systems

This is a study of perception and effectiveness of mediation to remove cautionary measures in child support proceedings. This is based on an assessed need within family law. This was an attempt to assess the mechanism via those who know law and mediation and justice to an extent as the predictions do not rely upon prior assessments. This assesses whether the mediation is ethical/legal/social for conflict resolution wherein it's not just warring adults; minors are at stake. Why is this topical? More and more people want this natural approach to attract judicial efficiency while simultaneously, de facto wellbeing. In this …

Current Situation Of The Integration Of Neutrosophy In Requirements Engineering, Franklin Parrales-Bravo, Roberto Tolozano-Benites, Leonel Vasquez-Cevallos, Leili Lopezdominguez-Rivas

Neutrosophic Sets and Systems

This study conducts a comprehensive literature review to explore the integration of neutrosophic logic in Requirements Engineering (RE), addressing challenges such as uncertainty, ambiguity, and conflicting stakeholder perspectives. By systematically analyzing peer-reviewed studies from 2015 to 2024, the research synthesizes existing neutrosophic techniques—including Type-2 Neutrosophic Numbers (T2NNs), Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps (NCMs), and Single-Valued Neutrosophic Sets (SVNS)—and categorizes their applications into uncertainty handling, conflict resolution, and requirement prioritization. The study highlights neutrosophy’s transformative potential in enhancing RE practices, offering robust solutions beyond traditional methods. Additionally, it identifies underexplored techniques like Bipolar Neutrosophic Sets (BNS) and Neutrosophic Rough Sets (NRS) for future …

Digital Divide In Latin America: A Multivariate And Neutrosophic Delphi Analysis For Inclusion And Public Policy, Cristian Cornejo Gaete, Viviana Tartakowsky Pezoa, Claudio Ruff Escobar, Jaime Zañartu Reyes

Neutrosophic Sets and Systems

This study examines access to digital connectivity in Latin America, highlighting both progress and persistent structural inequalities. In the context of the pandemic, the internet has consolidated its position as an essential tool for daily life, highlighting deep gaps between countries, urban and rural areas, and different socioeconomic groups. Using the graphical multivariate HJ-Biplot method, complemented by a Neutrosophic Delphi approach to model indeterminacies in digital inclusion policies, the research question is addressed: How are Latin American and Caribbean countries grouped according to their level of access to digital connectivity, considering socioeconomic, age, ¿and geographic differences? The hypothesis guiding this …

Innovation Ecosystems And Economic Performance In Latin America: A Multivariate And Plithogenic Neutrosophic Approach To The Global Innovation Index, Héctor Fernández, Purification Galindo-Villardón, Marcelo Ruiz, Alexis Pérez

Neutrosophic Sets and Systems

The article is a retrospective assessment of the innovation landscape in Latin America between 2012-2022. The assessment is conducted through a multivariate and neutrosophic plithogenic approach based on the Global Innovation Index (GII). The Principal Components Analysis (PCA) assesses the factors constituting the GII creation to reveal invisible dimensions of innovation, while k-means clustering divides the observations into three clusters relevant to structural ability and innovative achievements. Moreover, a multiple linear regression calculates the relative importance of the GII pillars compared to the mean value, revealing that the economic dimension of resources/infrastructure, human capital, and research generate the highest results. …

Effectiveness Of Dogmatic Criminal Law Reasoning In The Permanent Structure Of The General Theory Of Crime And Punishment Through Plithogenic N-Superhypergraphs, Luis A. Crespo-Berti, Josía Jeseff Isea Argüelles, Marco Patricio Villa Zura

Neutrosophic Sets and Systems

This study solves a central problem associated with criminal law: the theory and punishment of criminal law is assessed via transcendentally structured criminal law theory and punishment essentially static via a legal dogmatic approach. While transcendental are necessary for a normative understanding of criminal law, in reality, they apply to no situationally based real-world construction of intersecting cases, meaning transcendental assessments render static, decontextualized conclusions. Yet the application exists in criminal law but literature does not create a system that affords criminals, crimes, and punishment the non-certain, paradoxical, and variable components associated with them and a legal system. Therefore, this …

Formative Uncertainty And Community Perception In Social Engagement Projects Using Neutrosophic Z Numbers, Carlos Vélez, Carla Espinoza, Manuel Espinoza, Fabrizzio Andrade Zamora, Óscar José Alejo Machado

Neutrosophic Sets and Systems

This research addresses the gap of measuring social learning of social community projects, a controversial topic stemming from the subjectivity of all involved actors. It's a relevant topic because eventually, all community projects will need to be assessed for effective educational and social gains to ensure meaningful existence for sustainability purposes. However, the literature does not provide such assessments because actions are fuzzy or blended with communities and non-deterministic learning outcomes. This research attempts to assess the measurement of social learning of social community projects using Neutrosophic Z Numbers to bring uncertainty into the measurement equation. Beginning with a proposed …

Neutrosophic Classification Of The Factors That Shape The Professional Profile Of Students In Ecuadorian Higher Education, Ana Jacqueline Noblecilla Olaya, María Paredes Morales, Amor Lalama Franco, Dalva Icaza Rivera, Fabrizzio Andrade Zamora

Neutrosophic Sets and Systems

This article examines the professional profile of university students in the context of uncertainty of Ecuador. What constitutes this professional profile? Technical skills? Soft skills? Demands of the international and national market? This is relevant to the nation because the employability situation of the country depends on economic development. The correlation between higher education and economic development has been complicated by developments that exploit imperfectly educated people for demand within the employment market. Thus, a professional profile is neither the first study of such developments; however, few studies exist that assess the professional profile through uncertainty and contradiction which means …

Study Of The Information Technology Knowledge Of First-Semester Students At A Private University In Huancayo Based On The Indeterminate Likert Scale And Z-Numbers, Ketty Marilú Moscoso-Paucarchuco, Wild Franz Cerron-Leon, Manuel Michael Beraún-Espíritu, José Segura-Cuyubamba, Leidy Yamira Carrera-Travezaño, Herbert Víctor Huaranga-Rivera, Edgar Gutiérrez-Gómez

Neutrosophic Sets and Systems

It is essential for today's professional to know and master the information technologies that are part of modern life. Otherwise, this constitutes an educational deficiency in our universities that must be reversed. This paper aims to determine the level of information technology knowledge of first-semester students at the Franklin Roosevelt Private University of Huancayo in Peru. The study population consists of 240 students. Simple random sampling was used to select a representative sample. Data collection was carried out using a survey consisting of a questionnaire containing a set of 37 questions. The survey measures students' level of skills in using …

Law Enforcement, Reproductive Health Information, And The Hipaa Privacy Rule, Stacey A. Tovino

Faculty Articles

On April 26, 2024, the federal Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) promulgated a final rule (Final Rule) amending the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) Privacy Rule. The Final Rule prohibits HIPAA covered entities and business associates from using and disclosing protected health information (PHI) to conduct criminal, civil, or administrative investigations into an individual for the mere act of seeking, obtaining, providing, or facilitating lawful reproductive health care. The Final Rule also prohibits HIPAA covered entities and business associates from using and disclosing PHI to impose criminal, civil, and administrative liability on any individual, or to …