Digital Commons Network^™

Investigating The Complexity Of Language Acquisition For Linguistically Diverse Children, Krittin Srisajjakul

Master's Theses

Understanding the natural productions of children's early expressive language development is important to support their development. These natural productions may also be especially complex in children with diverse linguistic backgrounds. A challenge for clinicians is how to assess these natural productions for children’s early expressive language milestones. For example, what does it mean for children to say the same word in two languages and refer to the same concept (e.g., “water” and “agua”)? Or refer to two different concepts, (e.g., “water” and “leche” (milk))? By understanding how children’s expressive language connects to conceptual understanding, clinicians can better support language learning. …

Choline-An Essential Nutrient With Health Benefits And A Signaling Molecule, Brianne C. Burns, Jitendra D. Belani, Hailey N. Wittorf, Eugen Brailoiu, G. Cristina Brailoiu

College of Pharmacy Faculty Papers

Choline has been recognized as an essential nutrient involved in various physiological functions critical to human health. Adequate daily intake of choline has been established by the US National Academy of Medicine in 1998, considering choline requirements for different ages, sex differences and physiological states (e.g., pregnancy). By serving as a precursor for acetylcholine and phospholipids, choline is important for cholinergic transmission and the structural integrity of cell membranes. In addition, choline is involved in lipid and cholesterol transport and serves as a methyl donor after oxidation to betaine. Extracellular choline is transported across the cell membrane via various transport …

Scarna1 Expression Levels Affect Alternative Splicing Of Mrna, Madeleine Brown, Brittnei Earl, Michael Filla, Nataliya Kibiryeva, James E. O'Brien Jr., Douglas C. Bittel

Student Publications

Our previous research identified 12 small Cajal body-specific RNAs (scaRNAs) with reduced expression in the right ventricle in infant patients with tetralogy of Fallot. Likewise, we showed that there were significant changes in mRNA processing in the RV in these patients. ScaRNAs play a crucial role in the biochemical maturation of spliceosomal RNAs (pseudouridylation and 2′-O-methylation). We showed that variations in scaRNA1 levels resulted in changes in alternative splicing in human cells. To investigate further the role that scaRNAs play in mRNA processing, we examine here the impact of knocking down scaRNA1 in quail myoblast cells (Coturnix japonica, a well-established …

Early Care And Education Systems In The United States Of America: Voices Of The Past, Present, And Future, Timothy Harper

Dissertations

This mixed-methods study centers the voices, knowledge, and leadership of Black and Indigenous women working in Early Care and Education (ECE) while tracing how racism, sexism, and classism have shaped the field from colonization to the present day. Twenty in-depth interviews with sixteen Black and Indigenous educators across the United States are paired with secondary analyses of national workforce data to create a multilayered portrait of their professional realities. Grounded in Black feminist thought and Indigenous desire-based inquiry, the analysis surfaces six inter-locking themes: (a) enduring structural barriers that depress wages and limit advancement, (b) the day-to-day resilience that sustains …

Infants' Visual Preference For Expansive And Contractive Body Postures: An Eye-Tracking Study, Maryam Rostami-Aghoui, Caroline Floccia, Farid Pazhoohi

School of Psychology

Nonverbal communication is pivotal in early social and emotional development, with body postures serving as crucial cues. While extensive research has explored infants' recognition of emotions from facial expressions, a significant gap remains in understanding their visual inclinations towards body postures. Despite some studies on adults, there has been a lack of investigation into how infants respond to deliberate displays, particularly using eye-tracking methods. This research addresses this gap by examining whether infants exhibit a preference for expansive postures over contractive ones. A sample of 18 infants aged 12–24 months participated in the study, with their gaze patterns measured across …

Scarna1 Expression Levels Affect Alternative Splicing Of Mrna., Madeleine Brown, Brittnei Earl, Michael Filla, Nataliya Kibiryeva, James E. O'Brien, Douglas C. Bittel

Manuscripts, Articles, Book Chapters and Other Papers

Our previous research identified 12 small Cajal body-specific RNAs (scaRNAs) with reduced expression in the right ventricle in infant patients with tetralogy of Fallot. Likewise, we showed that there were significant changes in mRNA processing in the RV in these patients. ScaRNAs play a crucial role in the biochemical maturation of spliceosomal RNAs (pseudouridylation and 2'-O-methylation). We showed that variations in scaRNA1 levels resulted in changes in alternative splicing in human cells. To investigate further the role that scaRNAs play in mRNA processing, we examine here the impact of knocking down scaRNA1 in quail myoblast cells (Coturnix japonica, …

Antibacterial Potential Of Tapanuli Orangutan (Pongo Tapanuliensis) Food In Batang Toru Forest Against Escherichia Coli And Salmonella Typhi, Herna Febrianty Sianipar, Wahyu Widoretno, Luchman Hakim, Rezi Rahmi Amolia, Fatchiyah Fatchiyah

Karbala International Journal of Modern Science

Diarrhea is a common disease affecting orangutans, primarily caused by Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhi bacteria. To treat this disease, antibacterial food sources are essential as therapeutic agents for orangutans. The fruits consumed by Tapanuli orangutans include Campnosperma auriculatum, Agathis borneensis, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Castanopsis argantea, and Aglaia tomentosa. This study aims to examine the amino acid and phytochemical components with potential antibacterial properties in these five fruit species and their inhibitory effects on E. coli and S. typhi growth through cell lysis, observed using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The samples were tested for amino acids, phytochemicals, vitamin C content, …

Efficacy Of Berberine In Glucose And Metabolic Control, Grace Poduch

Summer Interdisciplinary Research Symposium

Objective: Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a common chronic disease with significant complications if poorly managed. This study evaluated the effectiveness of berberine--the primary active compound in Rhizoma Coptidis-- compared to metformin, a widely used oral hypoglycemic agent, in managing blood glucose in adults with T2DM. It also examined berberine's impact on metabolic syndrome components, including prediabetes, hyperlipidemia, obesity, and chronic inflammation.

Methods: A literature review was conducted using Google Scholar and PubMed with keywords including "berberine", "Rhizoma Coptidis", "metformin", and "type 2 diabetes". Included studies were full-text, published in English since 2019, and involved adult humans with …

Disease Modifying Drugs In Osteoarthritis: Structural & Symptomatic Outcomes, Peyton F. Weber

Summer Interdisciplinary Research Symposium

Objective: This capstone project aimed to evaluate whether proposed disease-modifying osteoarthritis drugs (DMOADs), compared to placebo, can slow or halt structural joint changes and subsequently improve pain and function in adults with osteoarthritis (OA).

Methods: A systematic review was conducted using PubMed, Google Scholar, and EBSCO, focusing on studies published since 2019 that evaluated proposed DMOADs (lorecivivint, sprifermin, chondroitin, and glucosamine) versus placebo in adults with clinical or radiographic knee OA. Inclusion required reporting on joint space width (JSW), pain, and/or function. Studies involving pediatric or animal subjects, prior joint surgery, malignancy, and non-placebo comparators, or lacking structural or symptomatic …

Effect Of Nitrate Rich Beetroot Juice On Blood Pressure In Hypertensive Adults, Angelina M. Neme

Summer Interdisciplinary Research Symposium

Objective: To evaluate whether consumption of nitrate-rich beetroot juice, compared to a non-nitrate enhanced diet, affects blood pressure (BP) in adults with hypertension.

Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted using Google Scholar, Cochrane, EBSCOhost/CINAHL, and PubMed. Search terms included "beetroot juice," "blood pressure," and "hypertension." Inclusion criteria: studies published since 2019, in English, full-text, involving human adults (≥ 18 years) with hypertension, examining the effects of nitrate-rich beetroot juice (70-250 mL daily) compared to nitrate-depleted juice or no intervention, and reporting both pre- and post-intervention BP. Exclusion criteria: studies published before 2019, not in English, not in …

Reviving Heritage, Soreya Ganda

Bachelor of Architecture Theses - 5th Year

Niger’s cultural identity is shaped by a rich mosaic of ethnic groups, including the Hausa, Zarma-Songhai, Tuareg, and Fulani, each with distinct traditions, building practices, and relationships to the land. For centuries, these communities lived according to their own social and spatial systems, rooted in environment-specific knowledge and craftsmanship. This balance was disrupted during the French colonial period, which began in the late 19th century and lasted until Niger’s independence in 1960. Colonial administration redrew territorial boundaries, centralized authority, and introduced foreign materials, aesthetics, and construction standards, redefining how people built and interacted with their environments. While Niger now appears …

Gene Therapy Ameliorates Neuromuscular Pathology In Cln3 Disease, Ewa A Ziółkowska, Albina Jablonka-Shariff, Letitia L Williams, Matthew J Jansen, Sophie H Wang, Elizabeth M Eultgen, Matthew D Wood, Daniel A Hunter, Jaiprakash Sharma, Marco Sardiello, Robyn Reese, Alan Pestronk, Mark S Sands, Alison K Snyder-Warwick, Jonathan D Cooper

2020-Current year OA Pubs

CLN3 disease is a neuronopathic lysosomal storage disorder that severely impacts the central nervous system (CNS) while also inducing notable peripheral neuromuscular symptoms. Although considerable attention has been directed towards the neurodegenerative consequences within the CNS, the involvement of peripheral tissues, including skeletal muscles and their innervation, has been largely neglected. We hypothesized that, CLN3 deficiency could directly influence peripheral nerves and investigated the neuromuscular system in Cln3

New Paradigms In E. Coli Hemolysin Function And Pathogenesis, Hunter Winston Kuhn

Arts & Sciences Graduate Student Theses and Dissertations

Bacterial pore-forming toxins are potent secreted protein effectors that disrupt cellular ion homeostasis by integrating into the plasma membrane. Among them, the RTX toxin alphahemolysin (HlyA) from uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) has been extensively studied for its hemolytic activity, broad cell tropism, and role in virulence. HlyA was identified as the first type 1 secreted substrate, with β2 integrin CD18/LFA-1 proposed as its receptor. However, its diverse mechanisms of cellular toxicity and impact on outcomes of urinary tract infection (UTI) have remained incompletely defined. During pyelonephritis, renal epithelial cells are at the front line of infection, directly contacting ascending UPEC …

Study Of Anomalous Variations In Seismic And Non-Seismic Parameters Using Machine Learning Techniques To Develop The Earthquake Forecasting Model In The Himalayan Belt, Senthil Kumar M

Theses and Dissertations

Understanding and forecasting earthquakes is not just about science it’s about saving lives, even as the dynamic and hidden nature of Earth's tectonic processes makes this an intricate challenge. The Himalayan belt is one of the most seismically active regions globally due to the collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates. Investigating this region is essential for understanding highly complicated tectonic mechanisms and reducing substantial hazards posed to millions of people by persistent and intense seismic events. This study aims to enhance forecasting methodologies by applying machine learning techniques while dealing with the inherent challenges of geological complexity and …

Steve W. Ross, Phd, Nancy J. Brown-Peterson

Miscellaneous Documents

No abstract provided.

Effects Of Oxygen Manipulation On Myofibroblast Phenotypic Transformation In Patients With Radiation-Induced Fibrosis, Eric Mastrolonardo, Sarah Sussman, Bo Yun, Victor Jegede, Dev Amin, Joel Rosenbloom, Andrew P. South, Voichita Bar-Ad, Peter J Wermuth, Adam J. Luginbuhl

Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery Faculty Papers

We tested if hyperoxic conditions can reduce the proportion of active myofibroblasts, which are assumed to be a major driver of head and neck radiation-induced fibrosis, as measured by expression levels of pro-fibrotic genes. Radiated, non-cancerous soft tissue from the head and neck and skin/soft tissue from non-radiated flap donor site were collected from each patient. Myofibroblast density was quantified using immunofluorescence staining with α-SMA and DAPI and visualisation under confocal microscopy and compared between baseline non-radiated and radiated tissue from the same patient. From each tissue specimen, fibroblast cell lines were cultured and exposed to either normoxic, hypoxic, or …

Macrophage-T Cell Interactions Promote Slamf1 Expression For Enhanced Tb Defense, G V R Krishna Prasad, Steven J Grigsby, Gideon A Erkenswick, Cynthia Portal-Celhay, Ekansh Mittal, Guozhe Yang, Samuel M Fallon, Fengyixin Chen, Thais Klevorn, Neharika Jain, Yuanyuan Li, Makedonka Mitreva, Amanda J Martinot, Joel D Ernst, Jennifer A Philips

2020-Current year OA Pubs

CD4+ T cells are crucial for protective immunity to intracellular pathogens. In addition to secreting cytokines, CD4+ T cells promote control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection through cognate interactions with macrophages, but the mechanism has been unclear. Here, we show that SLAMF1/CD150 is highly and uniquely induced in macrophages by antigen-specific interactions with CD4+ T cells. In macrophages, SLAMF1 enhances the generation of reactive oxygen species and restricts Mtb replication. Mtb-infection of mice promotes SLAMF1 expression specifically on infected macrophages, not uninfected bystanders. SLAMF1 expression depends on adaptive immunity and also autophagy. Moreover, Slamf1

Sepsis Restructures The Mitochondrial Calcium Uniporter Complex In The Lymphoid Tissues Of Mice And Humans, Xianghong Zhang, Jianguo Lin, Baobo Zou, Jack R Killinger, Andrew C Sayce, Thiagarajan Meyyappan, Zeyu Xiong, Melanie J Scott, Janet S Lee, Matthew R Rosengart

2020-Current year OA Pubs

Survivors of sepsis suffer from an elevated risk of premature death that is not explained by a higher burden of chronic diseases prior to the infection. Nearly 1 out of 4 survivors have persistent elevations of inflammation biomarkers, such as interleukin (IL) 6. These observations suggest that sepsis imparts durable changes to organismal biology. Eukaryotic life depends upon ATP and calcium (Ca

Environmental, Social, And Molecular Regulation Of Foraging Behavior In The Formosan Subterranean Termite, Arjun Khadka

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

Foraging is a critical activity in social insects, essential for resource acquisition and colony sustenance. In termites, this behavior is shaped by environmental, social, and genetic factors, yet the underlying regulatory mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, we examined how environmental food and moisture availability, and the age of termites affected foraging activities, along with the molecular regulation of foraging in the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus, using a combination of behavioral assays, transcriptomics, and molecular biology approaches. First, we demonstrate that food and moisture deprivation (FMD) significantly affects foraging, with termites under deprivation conditions exhibiting increased foraging …

Public Support For Puma Reintroduction In The Eastern United States, L. Mark Elbroch, Jazmin J. Murphy, Shelby C. Carlson, John A. Vucetich, Richard E.W. Berl, Lexi Galiardi, Shelby Perry, Tom Butler, Neil Carter, Joseph W. Hinton, Axel Moehrenschlager, Emily Carrollo, Rana Bayrakcismith, Jeremy T. Bruskotter

Michigan Tech Publications

Pumas (Puma concolor) are among the species identified as having the potential to enhance ecosystem function. Previous research highlights sufficient ecological habitat to support pumas in the eastern United States; however, their reintroduction requires social and institutional support as well. To this end, we conducted research to assess attitudes about puma reintroduction among key constituencies like hunters, rural residents, and young people. We sampled 2756 respondents across seven states (Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and West Virginia). Ratios of strong support (for puma reintroduction) to strong opposition across states ranged from 4:1 to 13:1, and support outweighed …

Uncharted Territory: The First Case Of Cardiac Myxoma In A Patient With Nf2, Muhammad Sabri, Zinya Talukder, Naila Ijaz, Joseph Neri

Rothman Institute Papers

BACKGROUND: Cardiac myxoma is a benign tumor, typically originating in the left atrium, and is often linked to Carney complex. In our literature review, there are no case reports of cardiac myxoma in patients with neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2).

CASE SUMMARY: A 60-year-old man presented with dizziness and was found to have meningioma and vestibular schwannoma, consistent with NF2. Cardiac myxoma was incidentally diagnosed through echocardiography and confirmed by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and tissue pathology. The mass was surgically resected. The patient was offered genetic testing; however, he decided to not undergo further testing.

DISCUSSION: NF2 is an inherited …

Multiple Stressors Effects On The Physiological Performance Of Mytilus Trossulus, M. Christina Vasquez, Alana J. Borer, Claribel Y. Alcantar, Osiris Guinea Zepeda, Camya A. Brazil, Colin Carr, Emma Guerrini Romano, Alexander J. Provenzano, Min Jeon Roh

Biology Faculty Works

Mytilus galloprovincialis and M. trossulus co-occur and hybridize along set biogeographical ranges of temperature and salinity along the Pacific coast, USA. However, the role of physiological traits in mussel distribution remains poorly understood. We investigated metabolic rate, antioxidant activity (superoxide dismutase, catalase), oxidative damage (malondialdehyde content, MDA), and clearance rate of M. trossulus under multiple stressors: 7 days of hyposalinity (20, 28, 34 ppt), followed by an acute heat shock (17, 20, 25 ◦C). We found a significant effect of temperature on metabolic rate, an interaction effect on antioxidant activity, and MDA, and independent temperature and salinity effects on clearance …

Microrna Signatures In Dental Pulp Stem Cells Following Nicotine Exposure, David Vang, Leyla T. Hardin, Nabil Abid, Der Thor, Nan Xiao

Pacific Faculty Work

Background and Objectives: Nicotine is the most well-studied toxic substance in cigarette smoke and e-cigarette vape. However, smoke and vape are composed of other components that have a negative impact on health. The objective of this study is to investigate whether nicotine has a distinctive impact on molecular mechanisms in stem cells. Methods: The cellular impact of nicotine on the regenerative capacity of human dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) and the microRNA (miRNA) profile was examined. Bioinformatic analysis was performed to identify miRNA-regulated cellular pathways associated with nicotine exposure. These pathways were then compared to those induced by cigarette smoke …

Teaching In Authentic Ways: Exhibit Work And Student Curators In Special Collections, Rebecca Fitzsimmons

Faculty and Staff Publications – Milner Library

Engaging students in exhibit work offers them a chance to learn new skills and grow as scholars while producing a tangible and public-facing project outcome from their coursework. From learning to communicate complex ideas to making research connections between rare and primary sources, exhibit curation relies on building research skills, sharpening writing and communication techniques, and developing critical thinking skills. Pushing and refining ideas is an essential part of the iterative process of research, and exhibit curation invites students to learn this practice in a real-world, project-based way. More specifically, it requires students to read, review, compare, and analyze more …

Infectious Scleritis: A Comprehensive Narrative Review Of Epidemiology, Clinical Characteristics, And Management Strategies, Hamidreza Ghanbari, Masoud Rahimi, Ali Momeni, Kiana Hassanpour, Nikoo Bayan, Karen E. Lee, Alex Hansen, Ali R. Djalilian, Christopher J. Rapuano, Mohammad Soleimani

Wills Eye Hospital Papers

This study aims to provide an update on infectious scleritis (IS). A comprehensive search was conducted using Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed. IS is a rare but critical condition that presents significant diagnostic challenges and often leads to poor visual outcomes. It accounts for approximately 5%-10% of scleritis cases and warrants significant attention due to its delayed diagnosis. Ocular surgery is the primary contributor to IS, accounting for a substantial proportion of cases ranging from 58% to 83%, followed by trauma contributing to approximately 10% of cases. IS can be caused by various microorganisms, including bacteria (86%-87%), fungi (11%-13%), viruses, …

The Histone H3 Lysine 36 Demethylase Kdm2a/Fbxl11 Controls Polycomb-Mediated Gene Repression And Germ Cell Development In Male Mice, Michael T Bocker, Grigorios Fanourgakis, Kristie Wetzel, Pavel A Komarov, Hélène Royo, Alexia Rohmer, Sunwoo Chun, Ching-Yeu Liang, Hubertus Kohler, Taiping Chen, Xiaohong Mao, Mark A Labow, Reginald A Valdez, Michael B Stadler, Dirk G De Rooij, Paola Capodieci, John Tallarico, Antoine H F M Peters, Thomas B Nicholson

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

KDM2A/FBXL11 is a Jumonji-domain containing lysine demethylase catalyzing the removal of mono- and di-methyl modifications of histone H3 lysine 36 (H3K36me1/2). While Kdm2a is required for mouse embryogenesis, its role in adult physiology has been largely unexplored. Using conditional deletion approaches, we demonstrate that Kdm2a deficiency leads to testicular atrophy and male infertility. Although spermatogonial stem cells remain unaffected, proliferating and differentiating spermatogonia exhibit delayed cell cycle progression and apoptosis. RNA-sequencing of purified spermatogonia and spermatocytes reveals Kdm2a-dependent repression of over 750 genes during spermatogonial differentiation. Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq) demonstrates increased H3K36me2 levels at CpG-rich gene promoters …

The Microtubule-Severing Enzyme Spastin Regulates Spindle Dynamics To Promote Chromosome Segregation In Trypanosoma Brucei, Thiago Souza Onofre, Qing Zhou, Ziyin Li

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Microtubule-severing enzymes play essential roles in diverse cellular processes, including mitosis and cytokinesis, by modulating microtubule dynamics. In the early branching Trypanosoma brucei, microtubule-severing enzymes are involved in cytokinesis and flagellum length control, but none of them have been found to regulate mitosis. Here we report the characterization of the microtubule-severing enzyme spastin in the procyclic form of T. brucei. We demonstrate that spastin severs microtubule in vitro and overexpression of spastin disrupts spindle microtubules in vivo in trypanosomes, leading to defective chromosome segregation. Knockdown of spastin impairs spindle integrity and disrupts chromosome alignment and segregation. We further show that …

Sbv_Dps: A Stacking-Bagging-Voting Nested Ensemble Based Diabetes Prediction System Using K-Fold Cross Validation, Sourabh Shastri, Sachin Kumar, Paramjit Kour, Vibhakar Mansotra

Mansoura Engineering Journal

With the advancement of machine learning techniques, the introduction of the most accurate model has become a necessity. In real-world scenarios, every model has some constraints and assimilates errors, so their performance is not always highly efficient; this sparked the development of ensemble learning. The ensemble approach aims to consolidate the strengths of existing approaches and minimize their weaknesses or decision-making risks. The proposed diabetes prediction system encases a resampling filter, applied to balance the dataset and model builder method, i.e., without the SBV ensemble and with the SBV ensemble method. The model is initially built without using the SBV …

Improving Door-In-Door-Out Times For Stemi Transfer Patients: Impact Of A Protocolized Autolaunch Process, Hashim Zaidi, Waleed Kayani, Eric Power, Hei Kit Chan, Sini Eapen, Benjamin Karfunkle

Faculty, Staff and Students Publications

Background: The timely transfer of patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) to percutaneous coronary intervention-capable centers is critical for improving outcomes. Although the American Heart Association recommends a door-in-door-out (DIDO) time of ≤30 minutes, national compliance remains low.

Project rationale: At Harris Health, no patients with STEMI met this benchmark before 2022. We implemented a quality improvement (QI) initiative, including an "Autolaunch" process, to expedite STEMI transfers.

Project summary: During 2022-2023, we introduced QI initiatives, including the Autolaunch protocol, for patients with unequivocal STEMI. This process included rapid emergency medical services activation, direct catheterization laboratory transfer, and prearrival cardiologist …

Constitutive Il-7 Signaling Promotes Car-Nk Cell Survival In The Solid Tumor Microenvironment But Impairs Tumor Control, Matthew Dysthe, Ishwar Navin, Dayenne Van Leeuwen, Josue Pineda, Corrine Baumgartner, Cliona M Rooney, Robin Parihar

Faculty, Staff and Students Publications

Background: Adoptive transfer of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-expressing natural killer (NK) cells has demonstrated success against hematological malignancies. Efficacy against solid tumors has been limited by poor NK cell survival and function in the suppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). To enhance efficacy against solid tumors, stimulatory cytokines have been incorporated into CAR-NK cell therapeutic approaches. However, current cytokine strategies have limitations, including systemic toxicities, exogenous dependencies, and unwanted TME bystander effects. Here, we aimed to overcome these limitations by modifying CAR-NK cells to express a constitutively active interleukin (IL)-7 receptor, termed C7R, capable of providing intrinsic CAR-NK cell activation that does …