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2014

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Preparation And Sensing Properties Of Fsp Processed Wo3 Nano Sensor, Jiahao Huang Dec 2014

Preparation And Sensing Properties Of Fsp Processed Wo3 Nano Sensor, Jiahao Huang

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Nano-scale tungsten trioxide particles have been synthesized by the flame spray pyrolysis method and a 3×3 mm2 sensor was made by the drop-coating method using the nanoparticles as the active element. After heat-treatment at 500 °C, the materials structure and morphology were characterized by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. Sensing tests were carried out at 200 and 350 °C respectively, down to a trace nitric oxide concentration of 100 parts per billion. The sensor sensitivity was remarkable at these two working conditions employed in this work, providing evidence for the importance of flame spray pyrolysis method as …

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Polyaniline/Cellulose Acetate Composite And Its Ammonium Ion Sensing Applications, Lei Li Dec 2014

Polyaniline/Cellulose Acetate Composite And Its Ammonium Ion Sensing Applications, Lei Li

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Conducting polymers have been investigated for years, since their discovery in 1977. Among them, polyaniline exhibits high electrical conductivity, leading to versatile applications, such as sensors, actuators, and catalysts. In this thesis, emeraldine salt polyaniline (ES-PANI) and cellulose acetate (CA) have been employed to produce composite fiber and films by three different methods: electrospinning, drop coating, and spin coating. The morphology and size of produced composites were studied by SEM. The results showed that the diameter of electrospun composite fiber decreases to nanosize, generating a nanofiber matrix that immobilize polyaniline particles. Sensing experiments were carried out at room temperature. Three …

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The Use Of Biomaterials For Cell Function Enhancement: Acceleration Of Fibroblast Migration And Promotion Of Stem Cell Proliferation, Sisi Qin Dec 2014

The Use Of Biomaterials For Cell Function Enhancement: Acceleration Of Fibroblast Migration And Promotion Of Stem Cell Proliferation, Sisi Qin

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Wound healing and tissue regeneration proceed via fibroblast migration along three dimensional scaffolds composed of fibers with different diameters, spacing, and junction angles. In order to understand how each of these factors influences fibroblast migration, a technique for preparation of three dimensional fibrillar scaffolds was developed where the fiber diameters and the angles between adjacent fiber layers could be precisely controlled. In order to study the en-mass migration process, the agarose droplet method was chosen since it enabled accurate determinations of the dependence of the migration speed, focal adhesion distribution, and nuclear deformation on the fiber structures. Results showed that …

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Investigation Of The Biochemical Mechanism For Cell-Substrate Mechanical Sensing, Vincent Anthony Ricotta Dec 2014

Investigation Of The Biochemical Mechanism For Cell-Substrate Mechanical Sensing, Vincent Anthony Ricotta

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Advancements in stem cell biology and materials science have enabled the development of new treatments for tissue repair. Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs), which are highly proliferative and can be induced to differentiate along several mesenchymal cell lineages, offer the possibility for pulpal regeneration and treatment of injured dentition. Polybutadiene (PB) may be used as a substrate for these cells. This elastomer can be spun casted into films of different thicknesses with different moduli. DPSCs grown on PB films, which are relatively hard (less than 1500 Å thick), biomineralize depositing crystalline calcium phosphate without a requirement for the typical induction …

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High Throughput Electrospinning Of High-Quality Nanofibers Via An Aluminum Disk Spinneret, Guokuo Zheng Dec 2014

High Throughput Electrospinning Of High-Quality Nanofibers Via An Aluminum Disk Spinneret, Guokuo Zheng

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

In this work, a simple and efficient needleless high throughput electrospinning process using an aluminum disk spinneret with 24 holes is described. Electrospun mats produced by this setup consisted of fine fibers (nano-sized) of the highest quality while the productivity (yield) was many times that obtained from conventional single-needle electrospinning. The goal was to produce scaled-up amounts of the same or better quality nanofibers under variable concentration, voltage, and the working distance than those produced with the single needle lab setting. The fiber mats produced were either polymer or ceramic (such as molybdenum trioxide nanofibers). Through experimentation the optimum process …

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Biomechanical Analysis And Modeling Of Contact Interface As Applied In Tonometry And Bio-Inspired Skin Sensors, Jun Nishiyama Dec 2014

Biomechanical Analysis And Modeling Of Contact Interface As Applied In Tonometry And Bio-Inspired Skin Sensors, Jun Nishiyama

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

The modeling of contact interface, in which two entities are brought to interact with each other, either through direct contact or non-direct contact, is crucial in the understanding of robotics and biomedical research where such interface will determine important engineering properties. The modeling and analysis of direct contact interface and non-direct interface are studied in this dissertation, as applied in tonometry (non-contact) and skin sensors (contact). The stiffness of human organs or tissues is an important factor for medical diagnoses, and the accurate measurement of contact properties are very important. For instance, cancerous tissue has higher stiffness, and stiffer eyeballs …

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Squamous Cell Carcinoma Antigen 1 (Scca1) Promotes Mammary Tumorigenesis By Inducing The Unfolded Protein Response (Upr) And Il-6 Signaling, Namratha Sheshadri Dec 2014

Squamous Cell Carcinoma Antigen 1 (Scca1) Promotes Mammary Tumorigenesis By Inducing The Unfolded Protein Response (Upr) And Il-6 Signaling, Namratha Sheshadri

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

SCCA1 is a member of the serine/cysteine protease inhibitor (serpin) family whose intracellular targets include lysosomal cathepsins L, S and K. Its expression correlates with resistance to cell death resulting from lysosomal membrane permeabilization and cathepsin release in response to radiation and chemotherapy. Elevated SCCA1 expression has been reported in a wide array of cancers including squamous cell carcinomas of the lung, head and neck, skin, cervix, as well as hepatocellular carcinoma. Our laboratory recently found that increased expression of SCCA1 also correlates with high-grade, poorly differentiated breast carcinoma and poor prognosis. However, despite SCCA1's clear relevance in human cancer, …

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Microglia In The Healthy And Diseased Central Nervous System, Luisa Torres Dec 2014

Microglia In The Healthy And Diseased Central Nervous System, Luisa Torres

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in the death of neurons, disruption of neuronal connections, demyelination, and inflammation. There are three phases of SCI: Acute (from the time of impact to the first few days post-injury), secondary (hours to weeks), and chronic (months to years). Currently, little can be done to modify the acute phase. Efforts to intervene have focused on the subsequent phases to both promote healing and prevent further damage. In this study I show that the small molecule inhibitor Pifithrin-μ (PFT-μ significantly reduced lesion volume and decreased the presence of inflammatory cells (microglia and macrophages) in the lesion …

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The Role Of Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase In Regulating Kisspeptin Neurons Within The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis, Matthew John Alan Beymer Dec 2014

The Role Of Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase In Regulating Kisspeptin Neurons Within The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis, Matthew John Alan Beymer

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Kisspeptin neurons are potent regulators of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons, necessary for pubertal development and adult reproductive competence. Estradiol (E2) and testosterone (T), along with peripheral metabolic signals, such as leptin and insulin, regulate GnRH release indirectly, in part through the activation or inhibition of kisspeptin neurons. The changes in GnRH release and consequently in gonadotropin levels caused by these peripheral signals are strongly linked to changes in hypothalamic kisspeptin (Kiss1) gene expression. However, little is known about the intracellular signaling pathways that regulate Kiss1. The phospholipid enzyme phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) is a major downstream effector of steroid …

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The Degradation Of Pigments In The Water Column And Sediments Of The Bermuda Rise, Ashley B. Cohen Dec 2014

The Degradation Of Pigments In The Water Column And Sediments Of The Bermuda Rise, Ashley B. Cohen

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

The export of particulate carbon from the surface ocean into deeper water and to the seabed is a critical component of the carbon cycle. The concentrations and compositions of particulate pigments collected at different depths and sinking at different settling velocities can be used as a proxy for biologically mediated processes important to the early degradation of OM. By knowing what processes the compositional and quantitative changes in the particulate pigments represent, the POM cycle of the BaRFlux area can be better understood. It is important to understand the POM cycle because deposition of OM to the seabed is the …

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Characterization Of The Spatial And Temporal Variations Of Submarine Groundwater Discharge Using Electrical Resistivity And Seepage Measurements, Josephine Miryam Kalyanie Durand Dec 2014

Characterization Of The Spatial And Temporal Variations Of Submarine Groundwater Discharge Using Electrical Resistivity And Seepage Measurements, Josephine Miryam Kalyanie Durand

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) encompasses all fluids crossing the sediment/ocean interface, regardless of their origin, composition or driving forces. SGD provides a pathway for terrestrial contaminants that can significantly impact coastal ecosystems. Overexploitation of groundwater resources can decrease SGD which favors seawater intrusion at depth. Understanding SGD is therefore crucial for water quality and resource management. Quantifying SGD is challenging due to its diffuse and heterogeneous nature, in addition to significant spatio-temporal variations at multiple scales. In this thesis, an integrated approach combining electrical resistivity (ER) surveys, conductivity and temperature point measurements, seepage rates using manual and ultrasonic seepage meters, …

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Millennium Accidents, Breaking Narratives In Pedro Almodã³Var And Alejandro Gonzã¡Lez Iã±Ã¡Rritu | Millennium Accidents, Breaking Narratives In Pedro Almodóvar And Alejandro González Iñárritu, Anna S Shilova Dec 2014

Millennium Accidents, Breaking Narratives In Pedro Almodã³Var And Alejandro Gonzã¡Lez Iã±Ã¡Rritu | Millennium Accidents, Breaking Narratives In Pedro Almodóvar And Alejandro González Iñárritu, Anna S Shilova

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Millennium Accidents is an attempt to show the relation between the shattered, fragmented and decentralizing nature of contemporary, globalized reality and the texts it produces. In my research I aim to reveal the changes in the building and development of a story as a narrative and cognitive phenomenon. Economic globalization and the high-tech revolution have led to a modification of our mental, emotional and social functioning, converting the whole world into a huge network. Consequently, narrative-- be it verbal or iconic--shows the same metamorphosis as it generates multiple plots, neglects temporal and spatial conventions, and moves beyond national identities. Six …

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Between Here And There: The Ambiguous Ecologies Of Charles Simonds, Scott Volz Dec 2014

Between Here And There: The Ambiguous Ecologies Of Charles Simonds, Scott Volz

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

At the start of the 1970s, Charles Simonds began constructing miniature architectural ruins, what he calls dwellings, on the streets of New York City. They were fragile, temporary, and site specific. Occupying windowsills, wall crevices, and street gutters, the dwellings transformed their spaces from liminal to distinct. Over the course of the decade, Simonds built hundreds of dwellings in the Lower East Side alone, and they consequently developed a strong connection to the neighborhood. This essay addresses the dwellings as sites of makeshift ecologies. Looking at the reflexive relation between Simonds' sculptures and deteriorated living conditions in the Lower East …

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The Identification Of Guanosine-5'-Triphosphate Binding Protein 2 (Gtpbp2) As A Potential Drug Target For Diseases Involving Excessive Wnt Signaling, Jonathan Manit Wyrick Dec 2014

The Identification Of Guanosine-5'-Triphosphate Binding Protein 2 (Gtpbp2) As A Potential Drug Target For Diseases Involving Excessive Wnt Signaling, Jonathan Manit Wyrick

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Canonical Wnt signaling is involved in the regulation of many cellular behaviors dependent upon context, including the induction of cell proliferation, promotion of cell survival, repression of apoptosis, and regulation of cell differentiation. Perturbations in the Wnt signaling pathway have been shown to be present in a various amount of human diseases, such as cancers of the colon and breast, leading to aberrant cellular activity. As such, recent studies have focused on the inhibition of the Wnt signaling pathway in hopes of restoring normal cellular behaviors in diseases with excessive Wnt signaling activity. Our lab has discovered that the large …

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Analysis Of Principal Structural Orientation Of Trabecular Bone Using Quantitative Ultrasound, Liangjun Lin Dec 2014

Analysis Of Principal Structural Orientation Of Trabecular Bone Using Quantitative Ultrasound, Liangjun Lin

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Quantitative ultrasound (QUS) has been accepted widely as a non-invasive, economic, non-radioactive and portable modality for assessing bone heath status. This technology utilizes the basic physical mechanism of interaction between ultrasound wave and bone structure to provide mechanical and structural information of bone. Instead of only evaluating the quantity of bone like other traditional techniques such as duel energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), QUS is also capable of measuring the quality of bone such as anisotropy, microarchitecture and microfracture. This advantage of QUS is beneficial for treating the patient suffering from osteoporosis or other bone health deterioration, long term bed-rest patient …

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Synthesis Of A Novel Bis-Thiol Receptor For Arsenic(Iii) Compounds, Karlee Archer Dec 2014

Synthesis Of A Novel Bis-Thiol Receptor For Arsenic(Iii) Compounds, Karlee Archer

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

The effects of ingesting trivalent and pentavelent arsenic compounds range from developmental problems to death. They dissolve readily in water, and more of these compounds are finding their way into groundwater due to agricultural runoff, leeching from preserved wood and mining, among other sources. Development of an easily visualized molecule that binds selectively and strongly to arsenic compounds might allow ease of both the removal and detection of these contaminants from water. The program HostDesigner was used to design a receptor containing thiol groups that would favorably bind to an arsenic(III) compound. The precursor to this receptor is a a …

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Assembly, Structure And Properties Of Dna Programmable Nanoclusters, Cheng Chi Dec 2014

Assembly, Structure And Properties Of Dna Programmable Nanoclusters, Cheng Chi

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Finite size nanoclusters can be viewed as a nanoscale analogue of molecules. Just as molecules, synthesized from atoms, give access to new properties, clusters composed of nanoparticles modulate of their functional properties of nanoparticles. In contrast to synthetic chemistry which is a mature field, the creation of nanoscale clusters with well-defined architectures is a new and challenging area of research. My work explores how to assemble model systems of nanoclusters using DNA-programmable interparticle linkages. The simplest clusters of two particles, dimers, allow one to investigate fundamental effects in these systems. Such clusters serve as a versatile platform to understand DNA-mediated …

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Structural And Computational Study On The Interaction Of Bacterial Cell Division Protein, Ftsz, With Its Inhibitors For New Antibacterial Drug Discovery, Edwin Ottoniel Lazo Dec 2014

Structural And Computational Study On The Interaction Of Bacterial Cell Division Protein, Ftsz, With Its Inhibitors For New Antibacterial Drug Discovery, Edwin Ottoniel Lazo

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Filamenting temperature-sensitive mutant Z (FtsZ) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is an essential bacterial cell division protein that polymerizes into a structure called the " Z-ring" . Here it has been targeted for drug discovery. Compounds that exhibit anti-tuberculosis activity have been synthesized and used in crystallization conditions. Four crystal structures of MtbFtsZ have been determined, of which two are similar to the published dimer (PDB 1RQ7) which exhibits lateral interactions; they belong to P65 space group and crystals diffracted to about 2.6Å. The other two structures had two trimers in the asymmetric unit. The crystals diffracted to approximately 3.5Å and …

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The Other Half Of The Protein Folding Equation Characterization Of The Protein Denatured State Ensemble (Dse): The Case Of C-Terminal Domain Of The Ribosomal Protein L9 (Ctl9), Bowu Luan Dec 2014

The Other Half Of The Protein Folding Equation Characterization Of The Protein Denatured State Ensemble (Dse): The Case Of C-Terminal Domain Of The Ribosomal Protein L9 (Ctl9), Bowu Luan

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Studies on the unfolded state of proteins are important for understanding the mechanism of protein folding. The protein unfolded state or protein denatured state ensemble (DSE) is the starting point for protein folding. It provides a thermodynamic reference state for protein stability, and it can be targeted by rational protein design. Studies of the properties of DSEs can also reveal the factors that impact protein misfolding and modulate the tendency for protein aggregation in vitro and in vivo, and amyloid formation. The 92-residue C-terminal domain of ribosomal protein L9 (CTL9) is used as a model to study protein DSEs. This …

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Synthesis Of Structurally Diverse Major Groove Dna Interstrand Crosslinks, Shivam Mukherjee Dec 2014

Synthesis Of Structurally Diverse Major Groove Dna Interstrand Crosslinks, Shivam Mukherjee

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

DNA Interstrand Cross-links (ICLs) are extremely cytotoxic lesions caused by a variety of endogenous and exogenous agents. ICLs prevent the separation of two DNA strands and hence block essential cellular functions such as DNA transcription and replication. ICL causing agents are widely used in cancer chemotherapy and the removal of ICLs is associated with the resistance to anticancer agents. Despite the clinical importance of ICLs, the details of the pathways by which these lesions are repaired remain poorly understood. This dissertation focuses on the synthesis of structurally diverse major groove DNA ICLs that induce different degrees of distortion into the …

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The Role Of Parental Involvement In The Social Development Of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders, Emile Mulder Dec 2014

The Role Of Parental Involvement In The Social Development Of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders, Emile Mulder

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are characterized by deficits in social interaction. Research with ASD children has dramatically underrepresented fathers, who have only recently been considered as targets for parenting interventions and research. Parenting research with typically developing (TD) children has found that parental involvement (of mothers and fathers) is associated with child social development. Extending such findings to the ASD field is important as social development is a primary concern within this population. The present study sought to do so through an internet questionnaire targeting mothers and fathers. Specifically, this study examined associations between mother involvement, father involvement and their …

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A Study Modeling Secure Base Parenting Cognitions, Sandra Skinner Dec 2014

A Study Modeling Secure Base Parenting Cognitions, Sandra Skinner

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Secure attachment is associated with a host of positive outcomes including higher levels of prosocial behavior and self-efficacy, better stress regulation, and a lower incidence of psychopathology. Secure base support and sensitive caregiving interactions are predictive of secure attachment. Interventions designed to promote sensitive caregiving have had success in both improving parental behaviors and in increasing levels of attachment security. These interventions are, however, too time consuming and resource intensive to be rolled out to the general population. This study sought to determine if a brief and easy to deliver intervention could be successful in enhancing secure base cognitions in …

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Family Education, Occupation, And Chronic Illness: Social Class And The Lives Of Hemodialysis Patients, Paul Eric Bugyi Dec 2014

Family Education, Occupation, And Chronic Illness: Social Class And The Lives Of Hemodialysis Patients, Paul Eric Bugyi

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

A vast amount of evidence exists showing a relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and health. Regardless of how outcomes are measured (self-reported health, incidence of disease, mortality rates and others), income, educational attainment, and occupation are key predictors. How SES matters for health outcomes has been a major question asked by researchers during the past 25 years. Many sociologists argue that the resources that come along with high socioeconomic status - money, power, prestige, beneficial social connections, knowledge, and skills - explains the SES/health gradient. This research project assesses whether or not those resources were important to individuals in dealing …

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Gender, Power, And Inequality: An Examination Of The Causes And Consequences Of Queer Intimate Partner Violence, Bethany Marie Coston Dec 2014

Gender, Power, And Inequality: An Examination Of The Causes And Consequences Of Queer Intimate Partner Violence, Bethany Marie Coston

Stony Brook Theses and Dissertations Collection, 2006-2020 (closed to submissions)

Violence is a not a new social phenomenon--at least, in the sense that violence has occurred throughout history between individuals, within communities, and practiced by institutions. But mainstream sociological studies of violence are all too often studies of men's violence. This project is an attempt to challenge critically the specter of heteronormativity that haunts the theories and praxis of intimate partner violence (IPV). Under this preexisting framework, studies have focused on men's violence against woman and used patriarchy as an explanation (i.e. the unequal distribution of gendered power, with men benefiting). However, I want to know if gender is still …

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Huntsman Alumni Magazine, Fall 2014, Usu Jon M. Huntsman School Of Business Dec 2014

Huntsman Alumni Magazine, Fall 2014, Usu Jon M. Huntsman School Of Business

Huntsman Business Magazine

Alumni Magazine for the Jon M. Huntsman School of Business at Utah State University.

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Inflammation And Its Role In Our Health: Can A Plant-Based Diet Prevent Disease?, Leeanne Coffman Dec 2014

Inflammation And Its Role In Our Health: Can A Plant-Based Diet Prevent Disease?, Leeanne Coffman

Graduate Research Projects

No abstract provided.

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Pittsburg State University Annual Commencement, December 2014, Pittsburg State University Dec 2014

Pittsburg State University Annual Commencement, December 2014, Pittsburg State University

Commencement, 1903-Present

Program of undergraduate and graduate commencement exercises at Pittsburg State University on December of 2014

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Grand Valley Forum, Volume 039, Number 15, December 01, 2014, Grand Valley State University Dec 2014

Grand Valley Forum, Volume 039, Number 15, December 01, 2014, Grand Valley State University

2014-2015, Volume 39

Grand Valley Forum is Grand Valley State's faculty and staff newsletter, published from 1976 to the present.

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The Classic, Winter 2014-2015, Public Relations Dec 2014

The Classic, Winter 2014-2015, Public Relations

The Classic, 2010-2019

Zwemer View: We're All About Community; Around the Green: Top-Grade Recognition; Showcased Design; Outstanding Administrator; Memoir; Family Talk in Taiwan; Joining the Faculty: Laura Edwards, Tatum Geerdes, Rebecca (Vander Molen '03) Koerselman, Donna (Pennings '92) Van Peursem; Campus Life: Futbol Fandom; The Experts Say...; Hall of Famer; Profs on Sabbatical; Breaking Ground; Carlson Internships; Study Abroad Director; Face Value: Joan Andres; Investing in the Mission: 2013-14 giving tops $6.5 million; Outstanding Alumni; Super Blizzard; Red Zone; 1000 Words: Winter Wonderland; Ramaker Redux; Eat Hearty; Culinary Delights; Super Nurse; Homeland Security; Snapshot; Singing Soldier; Wheer in the world is NWC?; Red …

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Interactions Of Exyra Ridingsii, Riding's Pitcherplant Looper Moth And Sarracenia Flava , The Yellow Pitcher Plant, Christine A Ricci Dec 2014

Interactions Of Exyra Ridingsii, Riding's Pitcherplant Looper Moth And Sarracenia Flava , The Yellow Pitcher Plant, Christine A Ricci

Masters Theses & Specialist Projects

1. Exyra ridingsii is a host specific moth that spends its entire immature life cycle in the fire dependent Sarracenia flava pitcher plant. Sarracenia flava requires acidic, moist soil that undergoes frequent burns. 2. Habitat selection and the effects of fire as well as other habitat characteristics were examined for E. ridingsii during this study. 3. For this study, five sites in the Croatan National Forest were surveyed four times each year for two years. Only one site had no disturbances since 2009; the remaining four sites were evenly split with two having had burns occur in them and two …

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