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The Future Is Inclusive, Victoria Mcclendon
The Future Is Inclusive, Victoria Mcclendon
Theses and Dissertations
Victoria McClendon THE FUTURE IS INCLUSIVE 2024-2025 Stephanie Lezotte, Ph.D. Master of Arts in Higher Education This research explores the role of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) programs in higher education, specifically focusing on the impact of inclusion through Rowan University’s Unified Sports program. DEI programs are designed to support historically underrepresented groups, including students of color, LGBTQ+ students, students with disabilities, and other marginalized communities. This study examines the importance of DEI in fostering inclusive educational environments and investigates the consequences of removing such programs. A qualitative case study approach is employed, involving group interviews with students and faculty …
Waterpod: Evaluating Learner Engagement And Conceptual Understanding Through Gamified Virtual Reality, Leeza Eimeria Duller
Waterpod: Evaluating Learner Engagement And Conceptual Understanding Through Gamified Virtual Reality, Leeza Eimeria Duller
Theses and Dissertations
The water and wastewater industry faces a growing workforce crisis due to high retirement rates, limited public awareness, and underrepresentation of technical talent. Traditional outreach methods have struggled to engage students or convey the complexity of water systems. This study evaluates WaterPOD, an interactive virtual reality (VR) simulation designed to introduce users to wastewater treatment processes and careers through immersive learning. Grounded in Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), and Constructivist Learning Theory (ConLT), the study examined how VR influences conceptual understanding and career perceptions. A mixed-methods study with 138 college students measured SCCT constructs, CLT- and …
Compact Space-Folded Multi-Resonator Duct Silencer With Broadband Noise Reduction And Minimal Flow Disturbance, Joshua Lloyd
Compact Space-Folded Multi-Resonator Duct Silencer With Broadband Noise Reduction And Minimal Flow Disturbance, Joshua Lloyd
Theses and Dissertations
Control and reduction of unwanted noise is a significant concern in many residential, commercial, and industrial fields. Specifically, ducted noise control is of increasing importance due to the complex challenges of ventilation requirements imposed on the system. This research presents a compact, space-folded silencer which achieves broadband attenuation of noise in ducted applications. Making use of axial arrays of side- loaded resonators, this structure allows for unobstructed fluid-flow through its center, resulting in a static fluid pressure drop across the device of only 14.5 Pa. In addition, due to the silencer’s configurable nature, the geometry can be tuned to meet …
Design And Control Of A Versatile Modular Soft Robotic System With Integrated Resource Sharing And Self-Reconfiguration Capabilities, Joshua Knospler
Design And Control Of A Versatile Modular Soft Robotic System With Integrated Resource Sharing And Self-Reconfiguration Capabilities, Joshua Knospler
Theses and Dissertations
Modular, self‑reconfigurable soft robots promise unprecedented versatility by combining the compliance of soft materials with the adaptability of modular architectures. This thesis presents an integrated system of pneumatic, bending-type soft actuator modules. Modules are compact and fully equipped with tunable magnetic and electromechanical connections for low‑power attachment and detachment and a novel power-air-communication (PAC) connector for seamless sharing of electricity, compressed air, and digital signals. This work examines two representative assemblies: ManusBot, a pinching gripper, and TendrilBot, a versatile linear configuration for various tasks. Their grasping performance, variable stiffness, and radial support capabilities are characterized. A magnetic interlock and an …
Adapting A Personalized Normative Feedback Intervention For Graduate Student Drinkers, Faith Shank
Adapting A Personalized Normative Feedback Intervention For Graduate Student Drinkers, Faith Shank
Theses and Dissertations
On average, graduate students consume eight drinks per week, meeting criteria for heavy drinking and highlighting the need for a cost-effective intervention. The current study examined the efficacy of personalized normative feedback (PNF) for reducing heavy drinking in graduate students. Study 1 examined the feasibility and acceptability of the intervention content to inform a randomized controlled trial (RCT) of the intervention. Results from qualitative interviews with 13 graduate students who interacted with the intervention content preferred to receive feedback about peers enrolled in the same type of degree program. Study 2 was an RCT using PNF from peers with the …
Integration Of Mechanism-Driven Computational Modeling And Public Data Resources For Chemical Toxicity Assessment, Elena Chung
Integration Of Mechanism-Driven Computational Modeling And Public Data Resources For Chemical Toxicity Assessment, Elena Chung
Theses and Dissertations
Regulatory toxicology depends primarily on animal testing, which limits throughput, mechanistic interpretability, and applicability to human-relevant endpoints. This dissertation presents computational approaches that integrate publicly available bioactivity data with machine learning to support chemical safety evaluation. Oral carcinogenicity was modeled using curated chemicals from the US Environmental Protection Agency’s Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) and activity data from over 1,900 PubChem assays. Quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models trained on statistically prioritized assays demonstrated strong predictive performance and were applied to rank the carcinogenic potential of more than 16,000 compounds. Hepatotoxicity was evaluated using a hybrid modeling approach that combined structural …
Directivity And Sound Radiation Of Percussion Instruments And Harmonic Analysis Of The Alto Saxophone, Hanna Michelle Pavill
Directivity And Sound Radiation Of Percussion Instruments And Harmonic Analysis Of The Alto Saxophone, Hanna Michelle Pavill
Theses and Dissertations
This thesis investigates how musical instruments radiate sound, with a focus on directional behavior under realistic performance conditions. High-resolution measurements using a rotating microphone array were used to study percussion and woodwind instruments, providing new insight into how design, excitation, and frequency content shape acoustic output. The first set of experiments analyzed the directivity of the bass drum, triangle, and open snare. Each instrument exhibited unique radiation patterns reflecting its structure and playing method. The bass drum showed dipole-like behavior at low frequencies, transitioning to omnidirectional spreading at mid frequencies, and increasingly irregular patterns at higher frequencies. The triangle, due …
Unifying Explainability And Machine Learning: Towards Trustworthy And Plausible Explanations Without Post-Hoc Manipulations, Ian E. Nielsen
Unifying Explainability And Machine Learning: Towards Trustworthy And Plausible Explanations Without Post-Hoc Manipulations, Ian E. Nielsen
Theses and Dissertations
The deployment of machine learning (ML) in safety-critical domains is impeded by the black-box nature of deep learning models. Although these models excel at discerning complex patterns, their opacity undermines trust, limiting their use for high-stakes tasks. This thesis advances the field of eXplainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) by introducing novel methods to evaluate and enhance model interpretability, ensuring explanations are both faithful (accurate to the model’s reasoning) and plausible (intelligible to human users). A key challenge in XAI is the unreliability of post-hoc explanation methods. To address this, we propose (1) quantitative evaluation metrics for assessing the faithfulness of local …
Martingale Methods For Structural Change Detection And Feature Attribution In Dynamic Networks, Izhar Ali
Martingale Methods For Structural Change Detection And Feature Attribution In Dynamic Networks, Izhar Ali
Theses and Dissertations
Dynamic networks undergo structural changes when their generative process shifts at a change-point. We need to detect this change-point with minimal delay while identifying its underlying causes. This is an optimization problem of minimizing the expected detection delay while controlling the false alarm probability below a threshold---leading to three critical challenges: non-parametric detection without distributional assumptions, exact feature attribution, and early detection with rigorous false alarm control. We construct additive martingale statistics from multiple graph features using conformal prediction, providing false alarm guarantees via Ville's inequality. Our key theoretical contribution proves the Martingale-Shapley equivalence: each feature's martingale value equals its …
Low Surface Brightness Features Of Edge-On Galaxies In Deep Sky Surveys, Kyle R. Adams
Low Surface Brightness Features Of Edge-On Galaxies In Deep Sky Surveys, Kyle R. Adams
Theses and Dissertations
In this thesis, we present a comprehensive visual analysis of low surface brightness (LSB) structures in edge-on galaxies using two statistically complete samples: 838 galaxies from the SDSS Stripe 82 region (ES82) and 5,745 galaxies from the Edge-on Galaxies in SDSS (EGIS) catalog, both containing galaxies with spectroscopic redshifts out to 𝑧 ∼ 0.2. Using deep imaging data from the SDSS, SDSS Stripe 82, DESI Legacy Imaging Surveys, and the HSC-SSP, we construct RGB and coadded images for comparison and to improve feature detection. Average limiting photometric depth for each survey in the 𝑟 band for the surveys analyzed in …
Applying Ceragenins In Translational Medicine: Activating Mesenchymal Stem Cells And Preventing Healthcare-Associated Infections, Aaron L. Zaugg
Applying Ceragenins In Translational Medicine: Activating Mesenchymal Stem Cells And Preventing Healthcare-Associated Infections, Aaron L. Zaugg
Theses and Dissertations
Healthcare-associated infections are a major global concern. Increased infections among vulnerable populations lead to millions of deaths, annually, complicated by the emergence of multi-drug resistant pathogens. These infections are often facilitated by medical devices serving as abiotic surfaces that facilitate the formation of biofilms. Notably, colonization of prostheses and other bone-associated medical devices can lead to corrective procedures, revisions and death. To address these issues, inspiration can be drawn from natural sources of bone health and defenses against infection. Cathelicidins are endogenous peptides involved in both bone maintenance and infection control. Ceragenins are small molecule mimics of cathelicidins with broad …
Linking Static And Dynamic Structures And Properties Of Materials With Computational And Mathematical Models, (Enoch) Sin Hang Ho
Linking Static And Dynamic Structures And Properties Of Materials With Computational And Mathematical Models, (Enoch) Sin Hang Ho
Theses and Dissertations
Terahertz (THz) spectroscopy is an effective technique to study and manipulate the structural dynamics of materials, due to its frequency range being very similar to the vibrational frequencies of collective atom motions in a host of materials. High-field and broadband THz radiation can be generated via optical rectification (OR) in nonlinear optical (NLO) crystals. The efficiency of OR response in an NLO crystal is determined by many factors, including molecular hyperpolarizability (β), 2nd order electric susceptibility (χ(2)), crystal structure, primary growth orientation, refractive index, absorption and phase matching condition. In this dissertation, I will focus on using computation methods and …
Predicting Single-Leg Eccentric Hamstrings Strength In Aging Athletes Using Diagnostic Ultrasound- And Survey-Derived Parameters, Lee J. Hinkle
Predicting Single-Leg Eccentric Hamstrings Strength In Aging Athletes Using Diagnostic Ultrasound- And Survey-Derived Parameters, Lee J. Hinkle
Theses and Dissertations
Introduction: Eccentric hamstring strength declines with age and contributes to mobility limitations. Although Nordbord testing quantifies eccentric strength, few studies have examined it in older adults, and none have predicted strength performance on this test using ultrasound or survey- based measures. Methods: We recruited 122 senior athletes (60 female) at the 2024 Huntsman World Senior Games. Ultrasound-derived cross-sectional area (CSA), echogenicity, and subcutaneous fat thickness, along with demographic and activity data, were used to predict single-leg peak force using Bayesian regression. Models were sex-stratified, and predictors were selected using leave-one-out cross-validation (LOO IC). Results: In males, CSA, age, leg side, …
Characterization Of Ultra-High-Speed Friction Stir Welds Made In Thin Sheet Aa6061-T4 Material, Todd Grant Lainhart
Characterization Of Ultra-High-Speed Friction Stir Welds Made In Thin Sheet Aa6061-T4 Material, Todd Grant Lainhart
Theses and Dissertations
Friction stir lap welding (FSLW) of thin aluminum sheets in industry and in research has faced challenges in weld quality that limit welding speeds. Interfacial defects such as hooking and thinning are common defects that appear at the interface of FSLW, and researchers and process operators have traditionally reduced process parameters such as feed rate and spindle rotation to fully eliminate the defects. While such measures are successful in creating fully consolidated FSLW, feed rates for FSLW have stagnated around 1 mpm with the fastest feed rates recorded at 3 mpm, making it difficult for manufacturers to implement FSLW in …
Computational Advances For Single-Cell Proteomics, Hannah Boekweg
Computational Advances For Single-Cell Proteomics, Hannah Boekweg
Theses and Dissertations
The overarching goal of biologists is to characterize biological systems. When the workings of a system are understood, they can be fixed, broken, preserved, mimicked, and even replicated. The field of proteomics seeks to characterize systems through the lens of proteins. Proteins are referred to as the 'workhorse' of the cell to illustrate that they perform most functional tasks within the cell. These tasks are highly varied, including enzymatic activity, structural support, transport, storage, cell signaling, gene regulation, immune response, and more. Proteomics has been instrumental in new biological discoveries by characterizing the functional state of cells. A new area …
In-Service Teachers’ Awareness And Professional Development In Egyptian Public Schools, Hanan Mohamed Metawea
In-Service Teachers’ Awareness And Professional Development In Egyptian Public Schools, Hanan Mohamed Metawea
Theses and Dissertations
Neuroscience is an emergent field that focuses on studying brain structure and understanding its significance in the learning process. There has been a recent movement in how to bridge the gap between neuroscience concepts and education by incorporating neuroscience principles into the teaching process. However, there have been limited studies in Egypt on how educators understand and utilize neuroscience principles in the classroom. This qualitative exploratory case study examines Egyptian teachers’ understanding of neuroscience concepts and how they apply them in their teaching practices. This case study was carried out in two government schools, including interviews with 11 teachers representing …
The Cellular Mechanisms Of Alzheimer's Disease Protection By The Pilra G78r Variant, Wenhan Cheng
The Cellular Mechanisms Of Alzheimer's Disease Protection By The Pilra G78r Variant, Wenhan Cheng
Theses and Dissertations
Microglial dysfunction is increasingly linked to Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). Immune receptors like TREM2 and CD33 play opposing roles in microglial activity. TREM2 activation triggers immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) signaling to promote microglial activities, including amyloid-β clearance, but variants in TREM2 such as R47H that impair its function increase AD risk. In contrast, CD33 is an inhibitory receptor that contains an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM) which transmits signals that suppress microglial function. An AD-protective variant in CD33 alters CD33 activity, potentially enhancing TREM2 function. PILRA is another inhibitory immune receptor expressed by microglia that contains an ITIM. A naturally …
Implications Of The Mind’S Active Participation In The Formation Of Perception, Maikel Adel Samy Michael
Implications Of The Mind’S Active Participation In The Formation Of Perception, Maikel Adel Samy Michael
Theses and Dissertations
The mind-body problem, particularly the issue of qualia, remains a fundamental challenge in understanding the nature of the mind and its relation to the body. In this thesis I argue that the problem is epistemic, stemming from how we perceive and know ourselves as physical and mental beings. This argument will be explored through the respective of idealisms proposed by George Berkeley and Immanuel Kant. Berkeley's idealism suggests that reality is rooted in perception, offering a major steppingstone by demonstrating the major role perception plays in understanding and acquiring knowledge. Kant contributes by asserting that the "thing-in-itself" is beyond our …
Bitcoin As A Currency: A Theoretical Framework Of Bitcoin’S Supply Effect On Consumption And Inflation, Begad Amr Hassan
Bitcoin As A Currency: A Theoretical Framework Of Bitcoin’S Supply Effect On Consumption And Inflation, Begad Amr Hassan
Theses and Dissertations
This thesis examines the macroeconomic effects of Bitcoin's fixed money supply within a dynamic general equilibrium context. Traditional Keynesian economics proposes that central banks regulate the money supply through interest rate manipulation and monetary interventions to promote economic stability within the market. However, cryptocurrencies, like Bitcoin, present a challenge due to their algorithmically predetermined supply, which halves every four years, removing discretionary monetary policy. By adapting Calvo's (1983) staggered-price model to a closed economy, supposing Bitcoin is the only medium of exchange, it is deduced that Bitcoin's deflationary nature causes a persistent consumption collapse and hyper deflationary spirals. Furthermore, calibrations …
Predicting Secondary Mathematics-For-Teaching Knowledge Using Beliefs, Experience, And School Culture: A Hierarchical Regression Analysis, Adam R. Brulhardt
Predicting Secondary Mathematics-For-Teaching Knowledge Using Beliefs, Experience, And School Culture: A Hierarchical Regression Analysis, Adam R. Brulhardt
Theses and Dissertations
Research in recent decades has supported the notion that practice-based mathematical knowledge is crucial for effective teaching, playing an important role in enacting reform-oriented instruction required for improving student achievement. Despite its importance, teachers—especially novices—require more support in acquiring such knowledge, an ongoing challenge exacerbated by teacher shortages. The purpose of this quantitative study was to determine whether collaborative school culture (CSC) explained variance in knowledge of algebra for teaching (KAT) beyond variance explained by mathematics-related beliefs and years of teaching experience for U.S. secondary teachers. Measures within an online Qualtrics survey included the Beliefs About Mathematics and Teaching Scale …
Quantum-Chemical Modeling Of Mechanisms And Selectivity In Open-Shell Organometallic Reactions, Michael T. Davenport
Quantum-Chemical Modeling Of Mechanisms And Selectivity In Open-Shell Organometallic Reactions, Michael T. Davenport
Theses and Dissertations
Quantum mechanical calculations have emerged as a powerful approach for directly evaluating reaction mechanisms and selectivity in transition metal-ligand complexes involving organometallic intermediates. Density functional theory (DFT) quantum mechanical methods enable the generation of potential energy surfaces and structures that define reaction mechanisms and allow for the evaluation of selectivity through statistical transition state theory. However, in certain cases, it is necessary to go beyond statistical treatments and incorporate atomic motion through molecular dynamics simulations. Additionally, many transition metal-mediated reactions involve unpaired electrons and spin state crossings. This dissertation focuses on the application of DFT-derived potential energy surfaces and molecular …
Development And Pilot Evaluation Of A Math Intervention Program To Increase Number Sense Proficiency Of Second Grade Students, Susan Galloza
Development And Pilot Evaluation Of A Math Intervention Program To Increase Number Sense Proficiency Of Second Grade Students, Susan Galloza
Theses and Dissertations
Students continue to function below grade level proficiency in math and thus, the need for effective intervention. The purpose of this study was to develop and examine the efficacy of a targeted number sense intervention for second grade students. Specifically, the study examined the benefits of an intervention, analyzed number sense as an essential foundational skill, and determined if proficiency in number sense leads to math proficiency. Employing a quasi-experimental design, an intervention was implemented in 14 weeks for students who demonstrated a deficit in number sense and outcomes were assessed using multiple measures. Primary findings indicated that students who …
Leading The Way For Better Stem Education: Perceived Leadership, Self-Efficacy, And Commitment Among Stem Teachers, Celina Fayez Fanik Bray
Leading The Way For Better Stem Education: Perceived Leadership, Self-Efficacy, And Commitment Among Stem Teachers, Celina Fayez Fanik Bray
Theses and Dissertations
This study investigated the relationships among leadership, self-efficacy, and commitment in STEM high school teachers. Grounded in social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) and self-determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), the study was guided by three hypotheses: (1) STEM teachers perceived leadership is significantly related to self-efficacy; (2) STEM teachers perceived leadership is significantly related to commitment to teaching; and (3) self-efficacy mediates the relationship between STEM teachers perceived leadership and commitment. This study employed a quantitative cross-sectional research approach that specifically used descriptive correlational design to examine possible relationships among perceived leadership, self-efficacy, and commitment in STEM high school teachers …
Hierarchy Viz: A Visual Analytics Framework For Visualizing Hierarchical Data Using Machine Learning, Vinay Kumar Uppalapati
Hierarchy Viz: A Visual Analytics Framework For Visualizing Hierarchical Data Using Machine Learning, Vinay Kumar Uppalapati
Theses and Dissertations
Automated visualization systems aim to generate visualizations directly from raw data with minimal user inputs. However, while existing systems focus on data visualizations mainly using line charts and scatter plots to explore the data patterns, they struggle with hierarchical data representation where data relationship is essential. Hierarchical visualization, crucial for understanding multi-level relationships, typically requires users to manually define hierarchies and have expertise in visualization tools to create meaningful representations. This makes the process complex, time-consuming, and reliant on domain knowledge. To address this, we propose HierarchyViz, an automated system that detects multiple hierarchies in raw datasets and generates intuitive …
From Assistance To Impact: The Expanding Role Of Undergraduate Teaching Assistants In Higher Education, Erin Measom
From Assistance To Impact: The Expanding Role Of Undergraduate Teaching Assistants In Higher Education, Erin Measom
Theses and Dissertations
This dissertation is presented in a three-article format. It explores the evolving role of undergraduate teaching assistants (UTAs) in higher education, with a particular focus on how they facilitate interaction, engagement, and student success in online courses. As higher education institutions expand online learning and seek innovative ways to enhance student support, UTAs have emerged as key players in bridging the gap between students and instructors. The first article provides a scoping review of the literature on UTAs, tracing their historical evolution and examining their expanding role. While traditionally viewed as logistical or grading assistants, UTAs are increasingly taking on …
Multi-Parameter Optimization Of Brine Desalination Using Machine Learning, Elaf Mman Seif
Multi-Parameter Optimization Of Brine Desalination Using Machine Learning, Elaf Mman Seif
Theses and Dissertations
Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD) is a promising desalination technology with significant potential for addressing global water scarcity. However, the interplay of operational parameters significantly impacts its performance, making optimization a challenging task. This research focuses on brine desalination as a means to mitigate the negative environmental impacts of brine disposal which will eventually help in provide a sustainable solution for handling brine while producing freshwater. The study seeks to develop a predictive model and optimize the AGMD process for efficient brine desalination. To achieve this, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) were utilized to develop predictive …
Deep Neural Networks For Particle Identification In Simulated Proton-Proton Collisions At Lhc And Rhic, Omar Mazhar Khalaf
Deep Neural Networks For Particle Identification In Simulated Proton-Proton Collisions At Lhc And Rhic, Omar Mazhar Khalaf
Theses and Dissertations
Particle identification is an essential part of experimental high-energy physics, which allows the study of the most fundamental constituents of matter. This thesis explores the use of deep neural networks for identifying particles in simulated proton-proton collisions at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC). The deep neural networks were trained on LHC datasets which have various momentum ranges including regions of high transverse momentum above 3 GeV/c. The key findings of thesis include achieving an accuracy of 99.99%, 98.3%, and 90.14% for 3-5 pt, 5-7 pt and above 7 pt regions respectively for the …
Optimization Of Pile Construction Sequence Using Cfa Machines, Omar Wael Ammar
Optimization Of Pile Construction Sequence Using Cfa Machines, Omar Wael Ammar
Theses and Dissertations
In most construction projects with deep foundations, piling activities are critical to the project schedule and often fall on the critical path. The piling construction process requires a diverse range of resources, including equipment, materials, and skilful labour. Without carefully planning the construction process according to installation standards, there is a significant risk of time and cost overruns. These overruns are caused by inefficiencies such as equipment idle or lost time due to required lags between closely spaced piles. Therefore, it is essential to develop an optimized construction sequence to minimize these risks and enhance overall project efficiency. The primary …
A Modular Simulation Environment And B-Spline Trajectory Generation Methods For Multi-Agent Uav Systems, Landon D. Shumway
A Modular Simulation Environment And B-Spline Trajectory Generation Methods For Multi-Agent Uav Systems, Landon D. Shumway
Theses and Dissertations
Multi-agent UAV systems present a complex challenge requiring solutions to numerous subproblems. This research addresses two key issues: simulation testing and path planning. A modular simulation environment is developed, enabling users to run diverse mission scenarios with heterogeneous UAV teams and to implement custom dynamic models and guidance laws. Additionally, two novel B-spline trajectory generation methods are proposed. The first generates time-synchronized B-spline paths for UAVs with arbitrary initial and final states in 2D space, accommodating scenarios where agents must follow predetermined speed profiles. The second guidance method converts spline paths between MINVO, Bézier, and non-uniform B-spline representations, leveraging the …
The Efficacy Of Open Educational Resources On Achievement Outcomes In Different Higher Education Institutions, Angela Grace Findlay
The Efficacy Of Open Educational Resources On Achievement Outcomes In Different Higher Education Institutions, Angela Grace Findlay
Theses and Dissertations
Students suffer from achievement gaps in higher education. Achievement gaps refer to differences in graduation rates, retention rates, persistence rates, and student's grades. Achievement gaps may negatively affect students who are culturally or ethnically diverse and/or have a lower socioeconomic status. The use of open educational resources (OER) may mitigate achievement gaps as OER assists student success through higher academic performance and cost savings for students. Average quiz scores were obtained at different higher education institutions using an Introduction to Psychology OER. The scores from each course were analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling. Colleges were nested by demographics to evaluate …