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The Fountain Of Youth?: Calorie Restriction And Its Relationship With Hand Grip Strength As A Marker Of Longevity And Aging, Arion Mete Jan 2023

The Fountain Of Youth?: Calorie Restriction And Its Relationship With Hand Grip Strength As A Marker Of Longevity And Aging, Arion Mete

Public Health Theses

Background and Purpose: Evidence supports a beneficial effect of calorie restriction on longevity within numerous animal models, while data for humans is limited to intermediate biomarkers of aging. The purpose of this study was to determine the association between calorie restriction in humans with respect to hand grip strength, a biomarker of aging and longevity, that has been understudied in relation to caloric restriction. Methods: We analyzed hand grip strength among 184 individuals enrolled in the Comprehensive Assessment of Long-term Effects of Reducing Intake of Energy (CALERIE), a 2-year randomized trial of 25% calorie restriction vs. control. Peak hand grip …

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Early Life Growth Patterns Among Infants Of Mothers With Diabetes, Hedy Ludwig Jan 2023

Early Life Growth Patterns Among Infants Of Mothers With Diabetes, Hedy Ludwig

Public Health Theses

AbstractObjective: Exposure to diabetes during pregnancy increases the risk of insulin resistance, obesity, and cardiometabolic disease in offspring. Limited research exists regarding early postnatal growth patterns among moderate preterm and term infants. This study aims to evaluate growth patterns during the early postnatal period among term and moderate preterm infants of mothers with and without diabetes during pregnancy. Methods: In a prospective longitudinal analysis using data from Yale New Haven Hospital (YNHH), characteristics from term and moderate preterm infants were compared between diabetes exposure groups (n=148). Percent change in weight from birth to hospital discharge was compared between diabetes exposure …

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Menopausal Status, Age At Menopause, And Associations With 1-Year Angina Burden Among Women In Recovery From Acute Myocardial Infarction Enrolled In The Virgo Study, Tamara Dorothy Mehta Jan 2023

Menopausal Status, Age At Menopause, And Associations With 1-Year Angina Burden Among Women In Recovery From Acute Myocardial Infarction Enrolled In The Virgo Study, Tamara Dorothy Mehta

Public Health Theses

Background: Current knowledge is limited on the association between early age at menopause (AAM) and angina during recovery from acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in young women. We assessed the differences in 1-year angina burden post-AMI among women in pre/peri-menopause phases compared to post-menopausal women stratified by their AAM. Methods: Among patients in the VIRGO study, 1,948 women were categorized into four groups: a reference group of those in their pre/peri-menopause phase (n=917), post-menopausal women who reached AAM at 40 years or younger (n=337), AAM between 41-49 years (n=476), and AAM between 50-55 years (n=218). Angina burden was assessed from Seattle-Angina …

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Exploring The Experiences Of Intergenerational Trauma And Coping Mechanisms Among African American Women: A Qualitative Study, Esthel Nam Jan 2023

Exploring The Experiences Of Intergenerational Trauma And Coping Mechanisms Among African American Women: A Qualitative Study, Esthel Nam

Public Health Theses

This qualitative study aimed to explore the experiences of intergenerational trauma and coping mechanisms among African American women. Semi-structured interviews were conducted among 9 participants, and the “Transactional Model of Stress and Coping” was used to analyze the data. The results revealed complex and interconnected forms of trauma, including historical trauma, adverse childhood experiences, death, and sexual abuse. Participants also utilized a range of coping mechanisms, including spirituality, social support, self-care, and therapy. The identified codes and subthemes provide a comprehensive understanding of the different forms of trauma that participants experienced, and the various strategies they adopted and utilized to …

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Associations Between Patient Sociodemographic Factors And Risk-Aligned Prostate Cancer Clinical Management, Madison Jewel Novosel Jan 2023

Associations Between Patient Sociodemographic Factors And Risk-Aligned Prostate Cancer Clinical Management, Madison Jewel Novosel

Public Health Theses

Although definitive treatment is associated with improved survival for aggressive prostate cancer and is supported by clinical practice guidelines, a significant number of patients do not receive definitive treatment. To identify gaps in practice, we sought to evaluate sociodemographic factors associated with treatment of localized prostate cancer across clinically relevant risk strata. We performed a retrospective study of patients with prostate cancer using the National Cancer Database. A total of 954,591 patients diagnosed with localized prostate (cT1-4N0M0) cancer from 2010 to 2020 were included in the analysis. We used descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regression to evaluate factors associated with …

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Characterizing Populations Living Near Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations: Implications For Health Equity And Environmental Justice, Leah Salzano Jan 2023

Characterizing Populations Living Near Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations: Implications For Health Equity And Environmental Justice, Leah Salzano

Public Health Theses

Current literature has highlighted that concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOS) are associated with adverse health outcomes among populations living in close proximity to the farms and that, in certain states, vulnerable populations may be disproportionately exposed to CAFOs. However, none of the existing studies have assessed the sociodemographic makeup of areas highly exposed to CAFOs across a diverse geographic range. Using locations of CAFOs across six states with robust operations, we conducted logistic regression models assessing the likelihood of high exposure vs. low exposure at the census tract level for each 10% increase in sociodemographic variables (percent unemployed, percent minority, …

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Examining The Impacts Of Stress And Negative Affect On Eating And Weight Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis, Taylor Spadory Jan 2023

Examining The Impacts Of Stress And Negative Affect On Eating And Weight Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis, Taylor Spadory

Public Health Theses

Overweight and obesity have become incredibly pressing public health issues in the United States. Rising rates of prevalence pose grave risks to population health and underscore the need for a greater understanding of the underlying mechanisms that contribute to increased eating and weight gain. While stress and negative affect (NA) have been recognized as possible predictors, the literature is inconsistent and experimental studies have produced mixed results. Therefore, we conducted a comprehensive quantitative meta-analysis to assess the prospective effects of stress and NA on eating and weight outcomes, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). We …

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From Theory To Practice: Zoonotic Spillover, One Health And The Role Of Local Indigenous Communities, Pranav Prabhu Savanur Jan 2023

From Theory To Practice: Zoonotic Spillover, One Health And The Role Of Local Indigenous Communities, Pranav Prabhu Savanur

Public Health Theses

This paper discusses the impact of zoonotic spillovers on public health and the need for a One Health approach to preventing future pandemics. Zoonotic spillovers occur when pathogens are transmitted from animals to humans, facilitated by anthropogenic land changes, migration or trade, increased human-animal contact, and poor biosafety. However, anthropogenic land use change is the primary driver for zoonotic spillovers. Most emerging infectious diseases in humans are of zoonotic origin, and the impact of these spillovers on public health is significant. The paper emphasizes the need to prevent spillover events for primary pandemic prevention, which requires a coordinated and collaborative …

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The Financialization Of Recession Response, Aaron Klein Dec 2022

The Financialization Of Recession Response, Aaron Klein

Journal of Financial Crises

This paper analyzes economic policy responses to the COVID-19-induced recession, focusing on the American policy response. Despite widespread political distrust between the two parties sharing control of the government and the timing of the upcoming presidential election, America’s political system was able to enact a massive policy response that reduced the severity of the recession. This political response happened faster than any automatic policy response would have, based on the delays in data reporting. The economic policies enacted continued America’s trend toward financialization of fiscal policy. The Federal Reserve and America’s private banking and financial systems were heavily relied upon …

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National Security Concept Of Mongolia, Mongolian Ministry Of Foreign Affairs Dec 2022

National Security Concept Of Mongolia, Mongolian Ministry Of Foreign Affairs

Documents

No abstract provided.

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Marriage, Labor Supply And The Dynamics Of The Social Safety Net, Hamish Low, Costas Meghir, Luigi Pistaferri, Alessandra Voena Dec 2022

Marriage, Labor Supply And The Dynamics Of The Social Safety Net, Hamish Low, Costas Meghir, Luigi Pistaferri, Alessandra Voena

Cowles Foundation Discussion Papers

The 1996 US welfare reform introduced time limits on welfare receipt. We use quasi-experimental evidence and a lifecycle model of marriage, divorce, program participation, labor supply and savings to understand the impact of time limits on behavior and well-being. Time limits cause women to defer claiming in anticipation of future needs, an effect that depends on the probabilities of marriage and divorce. Time limits cost women 0.5% of life-time consumption, net of revenue savings redistributed by reduced taxation, with some groups affected much more. Expectations over future marital status are important determinants of the value of the social safety net.

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Black Capitalists In The Transatlantic Financial Industry, Rachel Laryea Oct 2022

Black Capitalists In The Transatlantic Financial Industry, Rachel Laryea

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

This dissertation is a study on the motivations and practices of willful Black participation in capitalism in the contemporary moment. With two sites of inquiry, Wall Street in New York City and Accra, Ghana, this ethnographic study examines how, and to what effect Black Capitalists successfully navigate financial institutions shaped by structural racism and covert inequality. I also track and assess the afterlives of Black professionals who leave Wall Street with an entrepreneurial posture as they sojourn across the Atlantic to create financial institutions of their own in Ghana. This migratory phenomenon is shaped in part by Ghana’s pivotal 2019 …

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The Biogeochemical Legacy Of The Landscape Of Fear: Pumas, Vicuñas, And Nutrient Cycling In The High Andes, Julia Dina Monk Oct 2022

The Biogeochemical Legacy Of The Landscape Of Fear: Pumas, Vicuñas, And Nutrient Cycling In The High Andes, Julia Dina Monk

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Research on biogeochemical cycles has historically focused on plant and microbial activity; however, growing evidence suggests that animals play an important role in nutrient cycling. Predators may be especially important drivers of these ecosystem processes, as they influence the quantity, quality, and distribution of organic matter through their control of herbivore prey. The role of predators and their herbivore prey in cycling and transporting nutrients may be particularly important in arid ecosystems, where productivity is low and resources are scarce and spatially clustered. In these landscapes with high heterogeneity of resources and risk, large herbivores may transport and hasten the …

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Structural And Functional Analysis Of Long Rnas, Rafael De Cesaris Araujo Tavares Oct 2022

Structural And Functional Analysis Of Long Rnas, Rafael De Cesaris Araujo Tavares

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

The relationship between RNA structure and function has challenged generations of scientists trying to unravel the ways that RNA functions in health and disease. RNA is known to adopt elaborate 2-D and 3-D folds that extend their regulatory possibilities way beyond those enabled by their primary sequence. The discovery, more than a decade ago, that most of our genome is pervasively transcribed has largely expanded the repertoire of known structured RNAs and their modes of action. Adding to the complexity of this picture, posttranscriptional RNA modifications chemically change the building blocks of RNA polymers and can also affect their structural …

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The Dynamics Of Early Steps In Transcription And Their Dysregulation In X-Linked Dystonia Parkinsonism, Josh Zimmer Oct 2022

The Dynamics Of Early Steps In Transcription And Their Dysregulation In X-Linked Dystonia Parkinsonism, Josh Zimmer

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

The dynamic life cycle of an RNA begins with transcription initiation and concludes when the mature transcript is degraded to monomer nucleotides. The early steps of RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) transcription, initiation and promoter-proximal pausing in metazoans, are the most complex and tightly orchestrated steps. To synthesize a single mature transcript,dozens of individual proteins must be assembled around a promoter to initiate transcription. In a reliable fashion, the initiated polymerase is halted only 20 to 60 base pairs downstream of the transcription start site (TSS) in a phenomenon called promoter-proximal pausing. Pausing is induced by a small number of additional …

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Paleontological Insights Into The Marine Silica Cycle, Sophie Westacott Oct 2022

Paleontological Insights Into The Marine Silica Cycle, Sophie Westacott

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Silicon is the second most abundant element in Earth’s crust and yet its seawater concentrations are far below saturation for any silicate mineral due to the activity of silicifiers, or organisms that make their shells, tests or spicules out of amorphous silica. On geologic timescales, the marine silica cycle is inextricably tied to the carbon cycle and global climate via the silicate weathering feedback and other pathways, and the concentration of silica in the ocean can vary the strength of these feedbacks. Silicifiers, primarily consisting of sponges, diatoms (phytoplankton) and radiolarians (zooplankton), are in turn affected by silica availability, and …

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Symptoms Of Schizophrenia And Their Relationship With Pharmacology And Learning Processes Across Species, Leah Fleming Oct 2022

Symptoms Of Schizophrenia And Their Relationship With Pharmacology And Learning Processes Across Species, Leah Fleming

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Schizophrenia is a debilitating psychiatric illness affecting roughly 1 percent of the global population. Psychiatry classifies schizophrenia, along with several other diagnoses, as a psychotic illness because patients experience a loss of touch with reality (psychosis). The current diagnostic criteria involve broad domains of symptoms including: Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior and negative symptoms (defined broadly by a lack of mental functioning). If a person experiences symptoms in two or more of these domains, they can be diagnosed with schizophrenia. This expansive definition makes schizophrenia difficult to investigate and treat. When examining the cause of schizophrenia, …

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The Optics Of Hatred: Visualizing The Vietnamese Other In Cambodia, Ngoc Tram Luong Oct 2022

The Optics Of Hatred: Visualizing The Vietnamese Other In Cambodia, Ngoc Tram Luong

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Informed by scholarship on the phenomenon of anti-Vietnamese violence and discrimination in Cambodia, this dissertation probes the construction of Vietnamese Otherness throughout Cambodian history and its imprints upon the lived reality of an eclectic population colloquially dubbed Yuon. It investigates the ways diverse groups of people identified as Vietnamese, either by themselves or others, can be construed within a Khmer ethno-nationalist discourse as the source of sociopolitical troubles—enemies from within, invaders of Cambodian land, strangers in our midst—that threaten the stability and survival of the Cambodian nation. This multilayered way of seeing has inspired waves of genocidal violence against the …

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Understanding Crystal Nucleation Using Molecular Simulations And Path Sampling Techniques: From Method Development To Atmospheric Contact Freezing, Sarwar Hussain Oct 2022

Understanding Crystal Nucleation Using Molecular Simulations And Path Sampling Techniques: From Method Development To Atmospheric Contact Freezing, Sarwar Hussain

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Crystal nucleation occurs during the initial stages of crystallization and constitutes the emergence of sufficiently large crystalline regions– known as critical nuclei– within the metastable liquid or the supersaturated solution. Nucleation plays an important role in a wide variety of areas such as cloud microphysics, semiconductor and solar cell manufacturing and the production of pharmaceuticals. In the absence of any external impurity, nucleation proceeds via homogeneous nucleation. Heterogeneous nucleation over an external surface, however, is the predominant mode of nucleation on the planet due to the abundance of a wide variety of impurities or crystal nucle- ation agents (CNA’s). Despite …

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Biophysical Signatures In Cancer And Sickle Cell Disease, Xingjian Zhang Oct 2022

Biophysical Signatures In Cancer And Sickle Cell Disease, Xingjian Zhang

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Physical cues are ubiquitous in biological systems, from the formation of molecules to the activities of living organisms. While bioprocessing requires functional and efficient biophysics, anomalies in biophysics also present medical challenges. My research integrated biophysical phenotyping and bioinformatics to investigate the physical cues in cancer and sickle cell disease. Cancer is one disease with a wide range of physical challenges. Numerous internal and environmental factors contribute to the heterogeneity of the tumor population. The development of tumor results in numerous physical stresses, which compress tumor cells. In addition, some aggressive tumor cells can migrate through the dense pores in …

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Rational Design Of Mixed-Graft Block Copolymers For Hierarchical Nanostructure Fabrication, Ruiqi Liang Oct 2022

Rational Design Of Mixed-Graft Block Copolymers For Hierarchical Nanostructure Fabrication, Ruiqi Liang

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Bottom-up fabrication of hierarchically structured materials with precisely controlled molecular arrangements is desirable for numerous advanced applications, ranging from separations, microelectronics, photonics, to energy storage. However, the inability to synthesize hierarchical structures with independently tunable lattices across multiple length scales limits the discovery of next-generation multifunctional materials. This thesis aims to develop a molecular self-assembly strategy based on multicomponent mixed-graft block copolymers (mGBCPs) to fabricate nanostructured materials with a variety of phase-in-phase hierarchical morphologies that combine nano- and mesoscale features. In this thesis, mGBCPs containing sequence-defined side chains can phase-separate to form ordered hierarchical structures with intramolecularly defined interfaces and …

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A Comparison Of Object Representations In The Primate Visual System And Convolutional Neural Networks, Viola Mocz Oct 2022

A Comparison Of Object Representations In The Primate Visual System And Convolutional Neural Networks, Viola Mocz

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are the state-of-the-art artificial vision models for object recognition tasks. Their architecture is inspired by the organization of the ventral visual system of the brain, and although the way they are trained is not constrained by neural responses, the activations of artificial neural networks nevertheless show some similarities to activations of primate visual regions. Here, across three different studies, I compare the representation of objects in CNNs with that of the primate visual system in two different ways: (1) examining the relationship between object identity and non-identity information and (2) examining the representation of multiple objects. …

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Structural Basis For The Assembly Of Omcs And Omcs-Like Cytochrome Nanowires In Diverse Microbial Species, Vishok Srikanth Oct 2022

Structural Basis For The Assembly Of Omcs And Omcs-Like Cytochrome Nanowires In Diverse Microbial Species, Vishok Srikanth

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Microbial extracellular electron transfer (EET) via surface appendages called microbial nanowires is important in a wide range of globally significant environmental phenomena and for applications in bioremediation, bioenergy, and biofuels. Since 2005, these nanowires have been thought to be type IV pili composed solely of PilA-N protein. However, structural analyses demonstrated that during EET, rather than pili, cells produce nanowires made up of cytochromes OmcS and OmcZ. The micrometer-scale OmcS nanowires show seamless heme stacking along the length of the filament, allowing for efficient electron transfer to extracellular acceptors or syntrophic partner cells.Polymerization of cytochromes is important in several biological …

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Abl2 Regulates Microtubule Dynamics Through Interaction With Both The Microtubule Lattice And Tubulin Dimers., Wanqing Lyu Oct 2022

Abl2 Regulates Microtubule Dynamics Through Interaction With Both The Microtubule Lattice And Tubulin Dimers., Wanqing Lyu

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Abl family kinases are believed to serve as central signaling nodes to transduce signals from upstream receptors to downstream signaling and cytoskeletal-associated proteins. Genetic studies in Drosophila indicate that Abl2 interacts functionally with microtubules (MTs), but the underlying mechanism(s) is (are) completely unclear. Here, I report that Abl2 directly binds MTs and tubulin to regulate MT dynamics. Abl2 binds with MTs via the C-terminal half, which is also mediated by the phosphorylation level of the N-terminus. Abl2 recognizes different MT lattice states, with a higher preference for GMPCPP-MTs than GDP-MTs. Abl2 also binds tightly to tubulin dimers, which is mediated …

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Data-Driven Analyses In Obesity And Chemosensory Neuroimaging, Michael Charles Farruggia Oct 2022

Data-Driven Analyses In Obesity And Chemosensory Neuroimaging, Michael Charles Farruggia

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Data-driven functional connectivity analyses in the chemical senses are relatively uncommon, with current literature largely predominated by Psychophysiological Interaction (PPI), Dynamic Causal Modeling (DCM), or Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) techniques. The aim of this dissertation is to expand data-driven analyses in the chemical senses (and using chemosensory stimuli) to promote the use of techniques not based on a priori hypotheses or derived from potentially irreproducible literature.Chapter One details a systematic review of functional connectivity analysis in the chemosenses, which demonstrates that, out of 103 studies examined, the vast majority use hypothesis-driven techniques. Moreover, these studies comprise topics of olfaction, gustation, …

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Monitoring Translation Regulation By Structured Rna Elements, Caroline Focht Oct 2022

Monitoring Translation Regulation By Structured Rna Elements, Caroline Focht

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Translation initiation across domains of life is a tightly regulated process, and functional RNA motifs are critical regulatory features. This dissertation largely focuses on developing a novel technique with which to quantify the effect these RNA elements have on translation initiation and on unraveling the functional requirements of these structures. I have leveraged RelE’s ribosome-dependent endonuclease activity to develop a quantitative assay for translationally regulated mRNAs and validated this method on two bacterial translational riboswitches. I have also demonstrated its applicability to eukaryotic systems by showing that RelE can measure isoform-driven differences in ribosome loading between yeast 5′ leader sequences. …

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Discovery Of Novel Covalent And Non-Covalent Inhibitors Of Hiv-1 Reverse Transcriptase, Zachary Carter Oct 2022

Discovery Of Novel Covalent And Non-Covalent Inhibitors Of Hiv-1 Reverse Transcriptase, Zachary Carter

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

The HIV/AIDS crisis remains a major world health problem, particularly in under-developed countries. Though advancements made in highly active retroviral therapy (HAART) in recent years have significantly reduced the annual deaths, the emergence of problematic mutant variants, coupled with issues of dosing, pill burden, and compliance, have necessitated the continued improvement of these therapeutics. Diversifying the scaffolds of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) used in combination therapy has the benefit of overwhelming the virion and raising the genetic barrier to resistance-associated mutations (RAMs). Additionally, the emergence of covalent RT inhibitors (CRTIs) opens the possibility of complete, irreversible eradication of the …

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Design, Synthesis, And Characterization Of Novel Mgmt-Dependent, Mmr-Independent Agents For The Treatment Of Glioblastoma Multiforme, Kingson Lin Oct 2022

Design, Synthesis, And Characterization Of Novel Mgmt-Dependent, Mmr-Independent Agents For The Treatment Of Glioblastoma Multiforme, Kingson Lin

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a devastating disease afflicting over 20,000 new patients per year in the US with a 5-year survival rate of ~5%. The current standard of care treatment for GBMs consists of radiation therapy with concurrent and adjuvant chemotherapy with temozolomide (TMZ). TMZ is a prodrug that generates methyl diazonium in vivo, which in turn methylates DNA. O6-Guanine is the clinically significant site of DNA alkylation by TMZ. In healthy cells these lesions are reversed by O6-methylguanine methyltransferase (MGMT), a suicide DNA repair enzyme. However, loss of MGMT expression is common in many cancers such as grade 2/3 …

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The Immunologic And Epigenomic Regulation Of Hiv-1 Persistence, Jack A. Collora Oct 2022

The Immunologic And Epigenomic Regulation Of Hiv-1 Persistence, Jack A. Collora

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Curing HIV-1 is challenging due to the presence and persistence of CD4+ T cells harboring HIV-1 proviruses. Understanding the epigenetic and transcriptional regulation that enables HIV-1 to persist despite antiretroviral therapy (ART) and immune pressure is critical to counteracting this latent reservoir. A first chapter consists of an edited published review and preview covering a relevant subset of known features of HIV-1 persistence and HIV-1-T cell interaction biology. The remaining three chapters are parallel projects to understand the multifaceted nature of HIV-1: the interrogation and longitudinal tracking of HIV-1 RNA+ cells from infected individuals, the identification HIV-1 silencing host factors …

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Identifying Immunological Biomarkers In Massive Public Data, Daniel G. Chawla Oct 2022

Identifying Immunological Biomarkers In Massive Public Data, Daniel G. Chawla

Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations

Recent advances in high-throughput experiments and systems biology approaches have resulted in hundreds of publications profiling immune responses to exposures such as pathogens and vaccines. Immune profiling is important for an emerging class of disease diagnostic technologies, as well as for understanding the mechanisms underlying disease pathogenesis and vaccine response. Massive amounts of public data are available for biomarker discovery and mechanistic profiling, including both datasets capturing transcriptional profiles of the immune system as well as published signatures describing changes that occur (e.g., in gene expression or cellular phenotypes) following infection or vaccination. This wealth of public data presents both …

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