Digital Commons Network^™

Introduction To E. D. E. N. Southworth: Recovering A Nineteenth-Century Popular Novelist, Melissa J. Homestead, Pamela T. Washington

Department of English: Faculty Publications

In early 1901, Willa Cather visited Prospect Cottage in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C., the longtime home of the recently deceased novelist Emma Dorothy Eliza Nevirte (E. D. E. N.) Southworth. Born in Washington, D.C., in 1819 to southern parents (her father from Virginia, her mother from Maryland), Southworth lived in Washington with her family until she married Frederick Hamilton Southworth and moved with him to Wisconsin in 1841. When he deserted her and their two children,' she returned to Washington and taught school to support herself, running to writing to supplement her income from teaching. Within a few …

Earmarked Revenues And Spending Volatility: The Case Of Highway Finance, Phuong Nguyen-Hoang Ph.D., William Duncombe Ph.D.

Mid-America Transportation Center: Final Reports and Technical Briefs

Over the last decade, state governments have experienced two recessions (including the recent “Great Recession”) which have resulted in significant disruptions in state budgets and highlighted the volatility of the personal income tax and general sales tax. Since infrastructure maintenance funding may be particularly vulnerable to budget cuts during recessions, it is important to identify more stable revenue sources and budgetary institutions. One of the distinguishing characteristics of highway finance in the United States is the heavy use of earmarked revenues linked to highway users. Our key research question is whether an increase in the share of highway funding from …

An Annotated Checklist Of The Horse Flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) Of Lebanon With Remarks On Ecology And Zoogeography: Pangoniinae And Chrysopsinae, Günter Müller, Theo Zeegers, Jerome Hogsette, Edita E. Revay, Vasiliy Kravchenko, Andrey Leshvanov, Yosef Schlein

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Knowledge of the horse fly fauna (Diptera: Tabanidae) of Lebanon is fragmentary, while the local fauna of most neighboring countries has been fairly well researched. Within the framework of the 20-year project “The ecology and zoogeography of the Lepidoptera of the Near East,” we regularly collected biting flies in the whole region, including Lebanon. During this time we recorded 14 horse fly species for two subfamilies in Lebanon: four Pangoniinae and ten Chrysopsinae. Only a single species, Chrysops flavipes Meigen, 1804, was known previously in Lebanon, but the following four Pangoniinae: Pangonius haustellatus (Fabricius, 1781), Pangonius obscuratus Loew, 1859, Pangonius …

Spatial Complexity In Fragmenting Amazonian Rainforests: Do Feedbacks From Edge Effects Push Forests Towards An Ecological Threshold?, Graeme S. Cumming, Jane Southworth, Xanic J. Rondon, Matthew Marsik

United States Department of Commerce: Staff Publications

Deforestation and resulting landscape fragmentation are important concerns in many tropical areas. Deforestation is a complex process with many potential feedback loops, many of which are ignored in models that attempt to interpolate forest loss based on past deforestation rates. In addition, most ecological studies of the impacts of deforestation have focused on landscapes that are already fragmented. These studies ignore the fact that edge effects, such as anthropogenic fire, reach their maximum well before habitat connectivity is lost and may create positive feedbacks that result in further fragmentation. We developed a simple model to explore the potential influence of …

State Of The Art Satellite And Airborne Marine Oil Spill Remote Sensing: Application To The Bp Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Ira Leifer, William J. Lehr, Debra Simecek-Beatty, Eliza Bradley, Roger Clark, Philip Dennison, Yongxiang Hu, Scott Matheson, Cathleen E. Jones, Benjamin Holt, Molly Reif, Dar A. Roberts, Jan Svejkovsky, Gregg Swayze, Jennifer Wozencraft

United States Department of Commerce: Staff Publications

The vast and persistent Deepwater Horizon (DWH) spill challenged response capabilities, which required accurate, quantitative oil assessment at synoptic and operational scales. Although experienced observers are a spill response's mainstay, few trained observers and confounding factors including weather, oil emulsification, and scene illumination geometry present challenges. DWH spill and impact monitoring was aided by extensive airborne and spaceborne passive and active remote sensing.

Oil slick thickness and oil-to-water emulsion ratios are key spill response parameters for containment/cleanup and were derived quantitatively for thick (>0.1 mm) slicks from AVIRIS (Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer) data using a spectral library approach based …

Reconstructing Disturbance History Using Satellite-Based Assessment Of The Distribution Of Land Cover In The Russian Far East, T.V. Loboda, Z. Zhang, K.J. O'Neal, G. Sun, I.A. Csiszar, H.H. Shugart, N.J. Sherman

United States Department of Commerce: Staff Publications

Russian boreal forests are the largest forested zone on Earth and a tremendous pool of organic carbon. Current limited records on forest structure, composition, successional stage and disturbances contribute to large uncertainties in estimates of carbon stocks and fluxes in this zone. Our ability to monitor ongoing changes in forest cover has improved with the influx of remotely sensed data products since 2000 from multiple satellite platforms. Here we present a method aimed at reconstructing disturbance history from a known distribution of land cover. We developed and tested the method over a biologically and topographically diverse region of the Russian …

Linking River Management To Species Conservation Using Dynamic Landscape-Scale Models, M. C. Freeman, G. R. Buell, L. E. Hay, W. B. Hughes, R. B. Jacobson, J. W. Jones, S. A. Jones, J. H. Lafontaine, K. R. Odom, J. T. Peterson, J. W. Riley, J. S. Schindler, C. Shea, J. D. Weaver

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

Efforts to conserve stream and river biota could benefit from tools that allow managers to evaluate landscape-scale changes in species distributions in response to water management decisions. We present a framework and methods for integrating hydrology, geographic context and metapopulation processes to simulate effects of changes in streamflow on fish occupancy dynamics across a landscape of interconnected stream segments. We illustrate this approach using a 482 km² catchment in the southeastern US supporting 50 or more stream fish species. A spatially distributed, deterministic and physically based hydrologic model is used to simulate daily streamflow for sub-basins composing the catchment. …

Water Current, Volume 44, No. 1, Winter 2012

Water Current Newsletter

No abstract provided.

Stochastic And Deterministic Processes Regulate Spatio-Temporal Variation In Seed Bank Diversity, Alejandro A. Royo, Todd E. Ristau

United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Question: Seed banks often serve as reservoirs of taxonomic and genetic diversity that buffer plant populations and influence post-disturbance vegetation trajectories; yet evaluating their importance requires understanding how their composition varies within and across spatial and temporal scales (α- and β-diversity). Shifts in seed bank diversity are strongly governed by the deterministic role of differential seed longevities. Nevertheless, spatio-temporal variability in propagule depletion from and recruitment into seed banks may alter both α- and β-diversity. Here, we ask to what degree deterministic seed exhaustion, stochasticity in recruitment and mortality, or both, shape α- and β-diversity?

Location: Temperate hardwood …

Confirmatory Factor Analysis Of The Preschool Behavioral And Emotional Rating Scale (Prebers) With Preschool Children With Disabilities, Cynthia J. Cress, Lori Synhorst, Michael Epstein, Elizabeth Allen

Department of Psychology: Faculty Publications

The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (PreBERS) is a standardized, norm-referenced instrument that assesses emotional and behavioral strengths of preschool children. This study investigated whether the PreBERS four-factor structure (i.e., emotional regulation, school readiness, social confidence, and family involvement) could be replicated with an early childhood special education (ECSE) sample of children. Teachers who participated in the study rated a total of 1,103 preschool children with disabilities. Confirmatory factor analysis determined the extent to which the ECSE data fit the original four-factor PreBERS structure identified with the national normative sample. Results indicated that the four-factor structure demonstrated an acceptable …

Toxic Tourism: Promoting The Berkeley Pit And Industrial Heritage In Butte, Montana, Bridget R. Barry

Department of History: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

Butte, Montana’s Berkeley Pit and its deadly water are a part of the country’s largest Superfund site. In 1994 the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a Record of Decision designating Butte, along with the neighboring town and mining site of Anaconda (twenty-five miles northwest of Butte), and 120 miles of Montana’s Clark Fork River as a single Superfund complex. The vast mining operations undertaken in the area, including five hundred underground mines and four open pit mines, have resulted in hazardous concentrations of metals in groundwater, surface water, and soils.

Butte’s mines once extracted more tons of copper …

Decadal Climate Information Needs Of Stakeholders For Decision Support In Water And Agriculture Production Sectors: A Case Study In The Missouri River Basin, Vikram M. Mehta, Cody L. Knutson, Norman J. Rosenberg, J. Rolf Olsen, Nicole A. Wall, Tonya K. Bernadt, Michael J. Hayes

National Drought Mitigation Center: Faculty Publications

Many decadal climate prediction efforts have been initiated under phase 5 of the World Climate Research Programme Coupled Model Intercomparison Project. There is considerable ongoing discussion about model deficiencies, initialization techniques, and data requirements, but not much attention is being given to decadal climate information (DCI) needs of stakeholders for decision support. Here, the authors report the results of exploratory activities undertaken to assess DCI needs in water resources and agriculture sectors, using the Missouri River basin as a case study. This assessment was achieved through discussions with 120 stakeholders.

Stakeholders’ awareness of decadal dry and wet spells and their …

Social Interaction At The Maya Site Of Copan, Honduras: A Least Cost Approach To Configurational Analysis, Heather Richards-Rissetto

Department of Anthropology: Faculty Publications

In this article, I employ least cost paths using GIS to measure the relationship between site configuration and social connectivity at the ancient Maya site of Copan, Honduras. I investigate two questions. First, did people of different social classes experience varying degrees of social connectivity? Second, did people living in different parts of the city experience difference degrees of social connectivity? Ultimately, the goal is modify traditional configurational analysis using least cost analysis (LCA) to identify how social hierarchy was embedded in landscapes and how ancient people may have strategically manipulated landscapes to structure social interaction and community organization.

Pond-Level Risk Factors Associated With Columnaris Disease On Mississippi Commercial Catfish Farms, Fred L. Cunningham, Skip W. Jack, David Hardin, Robert W. Wills

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

A large commercial catfish enterprise encompassing over 500 food fish ponds from five farms covering multiple counties in the Mississippi Delta was included in this analysis of columnaris risk factors. A gram-negative bacterium, Flavobacterium columnare, is the cause of columnaris disease and is considered the second-most prevalent bacterial disease in farm-raised catfish. The objective of this study was to determine if pond-level risk factors reported by farm personnel were associated with columnaris disease mortalities. To identify risk factors affecting susceptibility of farm-raised channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus to columnaris disease, a Catfish Management database was developed. Logistic regression was used …

Animal Foraging As A Mechanism For Sediment Movement And Soil Nutrient Development: Evidence From The Semi-Arid Australian Woodlands And The Chihuahuan Desert, David J. Eldridge, Terry B. Koen, Aaron Killgore, Niki Huang, Walter G. Whitford

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

An emerging area of interest in geomorphology over the past two decades has been the effects of biota on ecosystemprocesses.We examinedthe roles of a rangeof vertebrates onsoildisturbance in twomarkedlydifferent environments, the semi-arid woodland of eastern Australia and a Chihuahuan Desert grassland–shrubland in the south-westernUnited States. Foraging pits of soil-disturbingvertebrates variedmarkedly fromsmall scratchings of heteromyid (mainly Dipodomys spp.) rodents (1.8×10⁻⁴m³) to deep (1.0×10⁻² m³) excavations of the burrowing bettong (Bettongia leuseur) and greater bilby (Macrotis lagotis). Vertebratesmoved substantial volumes of soil in both environments, and activity was highly temporally and …

Characterization Of Resistance To Synchytrium Endobioticum In Cultivated Potato Accessions From The Collection Of Vavilov Institute Of Plant Industry, Alexander Khiutti, Olga Afanasenko, Olga Antonova, Oleg Shuvalov, Lubov Novikova, Ekaterina Krylova, Nadezhda Chalaya, Nina Mironenko, David M. Spooner, Tatjana Gavrilenko

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

The causal agent of potato wart (Synchytrium endobioticum) is an obligate parasitic chytrid fungus. It is included as a quarantine pathogen in 55 countries, with losses in susceptible cultivars reaching 50–100%. The aim of our study was to characterize the resistance to S. endobioticum pathotype 1 in cultivated potatoes from a well characterized subset of the Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry collection and to determine whether this resistance is associated with cultivated potato species taxonomy, with ploidy, with geographic distance or with a molecular marker Nl25-1400 proposed for molecular screening for resistance to pathotype 1 of S. endobioticum …

Soil Maps Of Wisconsin, Alfred E. Hartemink, Birl Lowery, Carl Wacker

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Legacy soil maps are an important input in digital soil mapping. This paper traces how reconnaissance soil maps in Wisconsin evolved between the 1880s and the present with some discussion on future directions. The first soil map in the USA was made in Wisconsin by the geologist T.C. Chamberlin in 1882. The second soil map of Wisconsin was made by A.R. Whitson in 1927, and the third by F.D. Hole in 1976. Soil texture and physiography were the major diagnostic mapping criteria. As more detailed county soil surveys were completed and knowledge of the soils increased, a higher level of …

Chapter 2 Switchgrass Breeding, Genetics, And Genomics, Michael D. Casler

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Switchgrass was one of the dominant species of the North American tallgrass prairie and savanna ecosystems that once dominated a large portion of the continent. It is currently used for pasture, hay production, soil conservation, and biomass production for conversion to energy. Switchgrass was selected in 1992 as the herbaceous model species to develop dedicated cellulosic bioenergy crops. Breeding and genetics studies began on switchgrass in the 1950s, focused on utilization in livestock agriculture. Recent developments have rapidly increased the rate of gain for biomass yield, largely by increasing the focus and intensity of selection and improving the choice of …

Continental-Scale Validation Of Modis-Based And Ledaps Landsat Etm+ Atmospheric Correction Methods, Junchang Ju, David P. Roy, Eric Vermote, Jeffrey Masek, Valeriy Kovalskyy

United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Publications

The potential of Landsat data processing to provide systematic continental scale products has been demonstrated by several projects including the NASA Web-enabled Landsat Data (WELD) project. The recent free availability of Landsat data increases the need for robust and efficient atmospheric correction algorithms applicable to large volume Landsat data sets. This paper compares the accuracy of two Landsat atmospheric correction methods: a MODIS-based method and the Landsat Ecosystem Disturbance Adaptive Processing System (LEDAPS) method. Both methods are based on the 6SV radiative transfer code but have different atmospheric characterization approaches. The MODIS-based method uses the MODIS Terra derived dynamic aerosol …

The Influence Of Temperature, Moisture, And Eolian Activity On Holocene Lake Development In West Greenland, Bianca B. Perren, N. J. Anderson, Marianne S. V. Douglas, Sherilyn C. Fritz

Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences: Faculty Publications

Holocene paleolimnological records (diatoms, organic content, spectrally inferred sediment chlorophyll-a) from three West Greenland lakes (~67°N) situated along a transect from the outer coast to a nunatak at the periphery of the Greenland Ice Sheet are used to explore the nature of regional postglacial lake development and its relationship to Holocene climate evolution. The lakes were deglaciated asynchronously by approximately 4 ka (earliest on the coast) and thus their sediment records document different starting points of Holocene ontogeny, both temporally and paleoclimatically. Despite similar time-transgressive characteristics of the diatom stratigraphies, overarching climatic factors, principally effective moisture, and eolian inputs, govern …

Monitoring The Invasion Of An Exotic Tree (Ligustrum Lucidum) From 1983 To 2006 With Landsat Tm/Etm + Satellite Data And Support Vector Machines In Córdoba, Argentina, Gregorio I. Gavier-Pizarro, Tobias Kuemmerle, Laura E. Hoyos, Susan I. Stewart, Cynthia D. Huebner, Nicholas S. Keuler, Volker C. Radeloff

United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

In central Argentina, the Chinese tree glossy privet (Ligustrum lucidum) is an aggressive invasive species replacing native forests, forming dense stands, and is thus a major conservation concern. Mapping the spread of biological invasions is a necessary first step toward understanding the factors determining invasion patterns. Urban areas may function as propagule sources for glossy privet because it has been used as a landscaping tree for over a century. The objectives of this paperwere to 1)map the patterns of glossy privet expansion from1983 to 2006 using a time series of Landsat TM/ETM+images, and 2) analyze the spatial pattern …

New Species Of Arostrilepis (Eucestoda: Hymenolepididae) In Members Of Cricetidae And Geomyidae (Rodentia) From The Western Nearctic, Arseny A. Makarikov, Scott Lyell Gardner, Eric P. Hoberg

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

Specimens originally identified as Arostrilepis horrida from the Nearctic are revised, contributing to the recognition of a complex of cryptic species distributed across the Holarctic region. Previously unrecognized species are described based on specimens in cricetid (Neotominae) and geomyid rodents. Arostrilepis mariettavogeae n. sp. in Peromyscus californicus from Monterey County, California, and Arostrilepis schilleri n. sp. in Thomomys bulbivorus from Corvallis, Oregon, are characterized. Consistent with recent studies defining diversity in the genus, form, size, and spination (pattern, shape, and size) of the cirrus are diagnostic; species are further distinguished by the relative position and length of the cirrus sac …

Zoonotic And Human Parasites Of Inhabitants Of Cueva De Los Muertos Chiquitos, Rio Zape Valley, Durango, Mexico, F. Agustín Jiménez-Ruiz, Scott Lyell Gardner, Adauto Araújo, Martín Horacio Fugassa, Richard H. Brooks, Elizabeth Racz, Karl J. Reinhard

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

We present the first reconstruction of the parasitoses among the people of the Loma San Gabriel culture, as represented by 36 coprolites excavated from the Cueva de los Muertos Chiquitos in Durango, Mexico. The coprolites date to approximately 1,400-yr ago. Species identified based on eggs recovered include the trematode Echinostoma sp., the tapeworms Hymenolepis sp. and Dipylidium caninum, and the nematodes Ancylostoma duodenale, Enterobius vermicularis, and Trichuris trichiura. After rehydration and screening, 2 methods were used to recover eggs from these samples including spontaneous sedimentation and flotation. Samples were analyzed by 3 different laboratories for independent …

Didactic Lessons Derived From The Shoshone River Skunk Rabies Epizootic, Craig A. Ramey, Kenneth H. Mills, Justin W. Fischer, Robert G. Mclean

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Studying the lower Shoshone River Basin’s (SRB) striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) rabies 6-year epizootic in northwestern Wyoming has produced four didactic lessons. First, physiographic changes by settlers circa 1900 affected its zoogeography by creating a canal system for irrigating crops originating at Buffalo Bill Reservoir (BBR). The resulting landscape changes increased agricultural lands and skunk habitat eightfold between the valley’s steep gravel benches. The valley was historically free of skunk rabies until the epizootic’s index case in August 1988. Second, human intervention began when the Bighorn County Predator Board (BCPB) proactively implemented rabies trapping surveillance and depopulation programs …

History And Evaluation Of National-Scale Geochemical Data Sets For The United States, David B. Smith, Steven M. Smith, John D. Horton

United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications

Six national-scale, or near national-scale, geochemical data sets for soils or stream sediments exist for the United States. The earliest of these, here termed the ‘Shacklette’ data set, was generated by a U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) project conducted from 1961 to 1975. This project used soil collected from a depth of about 20 cm as the sampling medium at 1323 sites throughout the conterminous U.S. The National Uranium Resource Evaluation Hydrogeochemical and Stream Sediment Reconnaissance (NUREHSSR) Program of the U.S. Department of Energy was conducted from 1975 to 1984 and collected either stream sediments, lake sediments, or soils at more …

Genetic Diversity Of ‘Cadidatus Liberibacter Solanacearum’ Strains In The United States And Mexico Revealed By Simple Sequence Repeat Markers, Hong Lin, Md Sajedul Islam, Yang Bai, Amin Wen, Suque Lan, Neil C. Gudmestad, Edwin L. Civerolo

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ is associated with the Zebra Chip (ZC) disorder of potatoes. A panel of eight simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers was developed and used to genetically characterize ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ strains obtained from ZC-affected potato plants in the United States and Mexico. The multilocus SSR markers in this study effectively differentiated genotypes and estimated genetic diversity of ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ strains. Genotype assignment analyses identified two major lineages of ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ in the North American populations while only one lineage type was identified in Mexican population. No clear genetic structure was found among haplotypes …

Switchgrass, Michael D. Casler, Robert B. Mitchell, Kenneth P. Vogel

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) is a tall, erect, warm-season perennial native to the tall grass prairie, oak savanna, and associated ecosystems of North America. It can be found in prairies, open woodlands, and brackish marshes east of the Rocky Mountains and generally south of 55° north latitude (Hitchcock 1951; Stubbendieck et al. 1991). Less than 1% of these ecosystems exist today, but these prairie and savanna remnants have served as in situ gene banks, preserving a vast amount of genetic diversity within switchgrass and many other plant species. Switchgrass has a diversity of uses as well, including pasture, hay …

Chapter 1: The Evolution Of Switchgrass As An Energy Crop, David J. Parrish, Michael D. Casler, Andrea Monti

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

This chapter discusses the prehistoric origins of switchgrass, its mid-twentieth century adoption as a crop, and late-twentieth century efforts to develop it into an energy crop. The species probably first appeared about 2 million years ago (MYA) and has continued to evolve since, producing two distinct ecotypes and widely varying ploidy levels. We build the case that all existing switchgrass lineages must be descended from plants that survived the most recent glaciation of North America and then, in just 11,000 years, re-colonized the eastern two-thirds of the continent. Moving to historic times, we discuss how switchgrass was first considered as …

Pulling Together: Linking Unemployment Insurance And Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Administrative Data To Study Effects Of The Great Recession, Theresa Anderson, John A. Kirlin, Michael Wiseman

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service / University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications

The SNAP-UI Data Linkage Project is an effort coordinated by the United States Department of Agriculture‘s Economic Research Service (ERS) to link state-level administrative data from the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and Unemployment Insurance (UI) program to examine the concurrent and sequential patterns in use of these program before and during the Great Recession. The project focuses on calendar years 2006 through 2009 and utilizes data from seven states: California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Maryland, Michigan, and Texas. The project has illuminated various issues with administrative data linkage, which this paper characterizes as the ―”Three C’s" of administrative data: custody, …

Examining Students’ Experiences As A Foundation For Multicultural Curriculum Development, Candace Schlein, Elaine Chan

Department of Teaching, Learning, and Teacher Education: Faculty Publications

CANADA IS BECOMING increasingly diverse through immigration and the birth of children into immigrant families (Statistics Canada, 2007a, 2007b, 2007c, 2008). This cultural pluralism is also reflected in school communities. Thus, there is a related growing requisite for issues of educational quality to be defined according to notions pertaining to multicultural education in order for educators to identify and to develop innovative ways of meeting the needs of diverse classroom populations. Moreover, there is a progressive need for pre–service and in–service educators to learn about effective ways of working with English Language Learners (ELLs) to support their rapid integration into …