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Cmsi Quarterly (Spring 2026) Full Issue, China Maritime Studies Institute

CMSI Quarterly Review

Full issue of Issue 1 of the CMSI Quarterly Review.

Battlefield Uncertainties And The Use Of Ai, Tsvetelina Van Benthem

International Law Studies

This article explores the relationship between uncertainty in armed conflict, the use of artificial intelligence (AI), and the content of international law. It first provides a review of different types of conflict-related uncertainty, both internal to the party to conflict and external, and considers the interaction between these existing uncertainties and the use of AI. In so doing, it also explores the new uncertainties that can be introduced through AI. Second, it analyzes national submissions on military uses of AI and autonomous weapons to outline the uncertainties raised by States and their relevance for regulatory approaches to the use of …

Technology-Based Challenges To The Law Applicable To Trade Interdiction During Armed Conflict At Sea: The Law Of Naval Warfare And Convoy Operations, Rob Mclaughlin

International Law Studies

The practice of convoy involves the concentration of a group of merchant vessels under the control and direction of warships and military aircraft for the purpose of protecting it from belligerent capture or attack. The practice has often been described as obsolete, but asserting the demise of the convoy has been as regular as it has been premature. It is fitting that this operational practice be subject to an updated legal treatment and identification of new legal challenges. This article seeks to reassess the law applicable to convoys based on the consequences of certain post-1945 technological developments. It notes that …

Cmsi Translations #28: Uphold The Idea Of A Maritime Community With A Shared Destiny And Forge A New Chapter In Maritime Military Security Cooperation, Du Bo, Wang Chenyuan

CMSI Translations

The concept of a maritime community with a shared destiny proposed by Chairman Xi is China's wisdom and approach for maintaining global maritime peace, promoting ocean development, enhancing global maritime governance, and advancing maritime security cooperation. This should guide efforts to tailor security cooperation relationships based on different targets. We need to broaden our thinking and innovate mechanisms for maritime security cooperation, take proactive steps to provide maritime public security goods, strengthen coordinated implementation of external maritime military assistance, and promote the creation of a new landscape in maritime military security cooperation.

Closing The “Extreme Circumstances” Gap: The Legality Of Nuclear Weapons When The Survival Of A State Is In Question, Christopher J. Hart

International Law Studies

There is a gap at the heart of the law governing the use of nuclear weapons. Repeated threats by Russian leaders to use nuclear weapons against Ukraine highlight the urgency of closing this gap. This article reviews the central holding of the 1996 International Court of Justice advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons. The article focuses on the controversial “extreme circumstances” clause, in which the ICJ stated that it could not determine the legality of using nuclear weapons when the survival of a State was in question. This left open the questions …

Review Essay—"Spoiling Victory: How Weaker Fleets Win": Deterrence And Denial: The Power Of Fleets In Being, Norman Friedman, S.C.M. Paine

Naval War College Review

No abstract provided.

“Let Sleeping Dogs Lie”—The Impact Of Naval Air Warfare During The Spanish Civil War On The Royal Navy, 1936–1939, Néstor Cerdá

Naval War College Review

The landscape of modern warfare is one of constant metamorphosis caused by a variety of factors, from technological advancement to shifting combat terrains. The Royal Navy’s experience with German airpower while enforcing nonintervention during the Spanish Civil War set uneven expectations for the role of naval airpower in the war to come.

Research & Debate—Operation Sledgehammer Reconsidered: Disaster Averted Or Opportunity Lost?, Gary Giumarra

Naval War College Review

No abstract provided.

Countering Intelligence, Surveillance, And Reconnaissance In The Pacific—Mobile Missile Launcher Survivability Against The People’S Liberation Army, Ben Wermeling

Naval War College Review

With the survivability of mobile missile launchers in question for newly established U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps multidomain task forces and Marine littoral regiments, the role of countering intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance in the Pacific may prove crucial to preventing sea denial from the land in future conflicts.

People’S Republic Of China Stratagems And Surprise Attacks—Implications For The Defense Of Taiwan, Ian Easton

Naval War College Review

As the People’s Republic of China continues to amass military forces across the strait from Taiwan, Chinese military doctrine holds the keys to preparing for potential conflict. Elements of surprise and deception, akin to those used by Russia during the invasion of Ukraine, may drive strategy and preparation for a potential invasion of Taiwan.

From The Editors - Winter 2026, Sam J. Tangredi Editor In Chief

Naval War College Review

No abstract provided.

Winter 2026 Full Issue, The U.S. Naval War College

Naval War College Review

No abstract provided.

In Memoriam: Professor Richard J. “Jack” Grunawalt, The Editors

International Law Studies

We remember Professor Jack Grunawalt, Feb. 2, 1934 – Sept. 22, 2025

Cmsi Note 20: Flying Higher And Higher: Vadm Cui Yuzhong - Moving Up In Complex Times, Andrew S. Erickson, Jordan Shaw, Christopher H. Sharman

CMSI Notes

Key Takeaways:

• On 5 November 2025, the aircraft carrier Fujian (福建舰) was commissioned into People’s Liberation Army (PLA) Navy (PLAN) service. One man was notably absent on this auspicious day—the PLAN Commander himself, Admiral (ADM) Hu Zhongming (胡中明), the leader CMSI profiled in CMSI Note 1.5 Instead, Vice Admiral (VADM) Cui Yuzhong (崔玉忠) was one of the PLAN’s senior representatives attending the ceremony. Cui’s high-profile appearance on the PLAN’s red-letter day may portend that Cui is slated to assume the highest PLAN billet.
• A career naval aviator and seasoned operational officer, VADM Cui’s expertise and record aligns well with the …

Cmsi Translations #27: What Is The Significance Of The Plan Type 055 Destroyer Zunyi Task Force's Distant Deployment To Australia?, Zong He

CMSI Translations

In February 2025, a distant-ocean task force led by Chinese Navy Type 055 destroyer Zunyi made its first appearance in Australia’s near seas, conducting live-fire exercises in the Tasman Sea. This action not only set a record for the Chinese Navy's activities in the waters surrounding Australia, but also attracted widespread international attention due to its overwhelming technological superiority and strategic deterrence. This article will analyze the deeper significance of this action from the perspectives of task force composition, deployment process, technical performance, and geopolitical impact.

Volume 1, Number 3 - From The Director, Christopher Sharman

CMSI Quarterly Review

No abstract provided.

Volume 1 Issue 3 Full Issue - The Legal Struggle For China's Maritime Power: Strategy, Sovereignty, And Enforcement

CMSI Quarterly Review

No abstract provided.

Cmsi Translations #26: Sea Dragon Refits Its Armor: The Type 076 Amphibious Assault Ship Ushers In A New Era, He Yin

CMSI Translations

At the close of 2024, the first of China's next-generation Type 076 amphibious assault ships was launched at Hudong-Zhonghua Shipyard in Shanghai. Named the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) Sichuan with hull number 51, this milestone concluded the PLAN's major combat equipment development for the year.

China’s navy only began to develop and construct modern amphibious assault ships around 2017. While the first generation of Type 075 ships (an initial batch of four vessels) was still being rapidly constructed, work commenced on the second-generation Type 076 in less than six years. This demonstrated the Chinese navy's urgent need for large-scale …

“I Plead Ignorance”: Autonomous Weapons And Criminal Liability For Not Knowing The Knowable, Jonathan Kwik

International Law Studies

This article argues that the unpredictability and unintuitive behavior of modern artificial intelligence provide more opportunities for users of autonomous weapon systems (AWS) to remain ignorant of risks posed by their systems to protected entities on the battlefield, and that this ignorance can be maintained even in iterative situations featuring a prior civilian casualty event. It demonstrates this theorem through illustrative targeting scenarios, before formalizing the argument through a model showing the evolution of an AWS-user’s mens rea as they receive notice of a prior incident, and choose to pursue—or not pursue—an inquiry. This analysis reveals a perverse incentive structure, …

Cmsi Note 19: China’S Blue-Water Research Fleet: Science In Service Of Strategy, Ryan D. Martinson

CMSI Notes

Introduction:
Today, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) owns the world’s largest fleet of blue-water marine scientific research vessels. While their operations are largely concentrated in the Western Pacific, an increasing number are reaching across the globe—from the Indian Ocean to the Arctic, and even the Western Hemisphere. In fact, as of this writing the Chinese research ship Tansuo 1, with its deep-sea manned submersible aboard, is operating in the Atacama Trench off the coast of northern Chile.

Key Takeaways:

• China’s marine scientific research fleet is expanding its operations around the world, including the Western hemisphere. Presently, a Chinese …

Modes Of Liability For Ai-Enabled Crimes In International Criminal Law, Antonio Coco

International Law Studies

As artificial intelligence (AI) technologies become increasingly embedded in human activity, the question of individual accountability for AI-enabled international crimes grows more pressing. This article examines how established doctrines of individual criminal responsibility under international criminal law—particularly the modes of liability recognized in the Statute of the International Criminal Court and in the jurisprudence of international criminal tribunals—may be applied to human actors who interact with AI systems in the commission of core international crimes. Through four hypothetical scenarios, the article explores varying forms of human involvement—from programming to deployment—and assesses whether existing modes of liability, such as perpetration, instigation, …

Ai-Enabled Decision-Support Systems In The Joint Targeting Cycle: Legal Challenges, Risks, And The Human(E) Dimension, Jessica Dorsey, Marta Bo

International Law Studies

Israel’s military campaign in Gaza as well as ongoing conflicts in Ukraine, Yemen, Iraq, and Syria include the reported military use of AI-enabled decision-support systems (AI-DSS) within the joint targeting cycle (JTC). These tools use AI techniques to collect and analyze data, provide information about the operational environment, and make actionable recommendations with the aim of aiding military decision-makers in evaluating factors relevant to legal compliance, such as taking precautions and ensuring proportionality in attacks. These systems are often touted as being simply a human aid and, as such, have flown largely under the radar regarding regulation as they are …

7th Annual Alexander C. Cushing International Law Conference, Stockton Center For International Law

Cushing International Law Conference

The Institute for Maritime Affairs and Law of the Sea (IMLOS), in collaboration with the Stockton Center for International Law (SCIL) of the U.S. Naval War College (USNWC) and Amador Research Services, hosted the 7th Annual Alexander C. Cushing International Law Conference, “Security at Sea,” on May 13–14, 2025, at the University of the Philippines (UP) College of Law Bonifacio Global City (BGC) Campus in Manila, Philippines. The annual Alexander C. Cushing International Law Conference brings together world-renowned scholars and practitioners in international law and oceans law and policy to address pressing and emerging issues in maritime law, governance, and …

Cmsi Note 18: Flooding The Zone: The Use Of Civilian Landing Craft (Lcts) In Pla Amphibious Operations, Thomas Shugart, J. Michael Dahm

CMSI Notes

In July and August 2025, China’s People’s Liberation Army (PLA) employed a unique type of civilian deck cargo ship known as a Landing Craft Tank (LCT) to transport military vehicles directly to shore as part of an amphibious landing exercise. While civilian deck cargo ships of this type have been observed in previous PLA over-the-shore logistics exercises, they had only been used to transport vehicles and equipment from port-to-port—simulating the transport of forces into a captured port—not directly to an unimproved beachhead. If the PLA develops the ability to coordinate and employ significant numbers of civilian LCTs to transport forces …

Vol. 1, No. 2 Full Issue

CMSI Quarterly Review

Full issue of Issue 1 of the CMSI Quarterly Review.

Cmsi Translations

CMSI Quarterly Review

No abstract provided.

Cmsi Research In The News

CMSI Quarterly Review

No abstract provided.

From The Director

CMSI Quarterly Review

No abstract provided.

Legal Issues Arising From The Military Use Of Ai-Supported Biometrics, Marten Zwanenburg

International Law Studies

Biometrics is increasingly used by armed forces for a variety of purposes, such as access control, the registration of detainees, and increasingly also targeting. The capabilities of biometric systems are considerably strengthened when they are enabled by artificial intelligence (AI). This article analyzes legal questions that are raised by the military use of such AI-supported biometrics. It argues that relevant legal frameworks are International Humanitarian Law, international human rights law, and the right to privacy in particular, as well as data protection law. The article finds that arguably, IHL may require the use of (AI-supported) biometrics in certain situations if …

Ai And Naval Operations, Wolff Heintschel Von Heinegg

International Law Studies

Artificial intelligence systems in naval operations are reality. They enhance naval capabilities in various respects. Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles depend on such systems. Moreover, these systems contribute to threat detection and identification, to real-time strategy optimization, and to intelligence analysis. The present article provides a brief analysis of the legality of AI systems used by naval forces under the law of naval warfare, which, in many respects, differs considerably from the law of land warfare. Accordingly, it is necessary to distinguish between attacks from the sea against targets on land and attacks against targets at sea and in the …