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Heredity, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Heredity, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Heredity is the sum of biological processes that result in the transmission of genetic traits from parents to their offspring, making each individual unique. Through the transmission of genetic traits, heredity is responsible for each individual’s genotype, as well as his or her phenotype. The genes that are passed down from generation to generation have a considerable influence on psychological characteristics including intelligence, personality, mental health, and patterns of behavior. However, when considering psychological characteristics passed down through heredity, it is vital that environmental aspects are also considered.


Life Review, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Life Review, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

In traditional societies, storytelling was an art used to help understand the meaning of life. Storytellers typically included older adults who had experienced challenges in their lives and were aiming to help the young learn from them. This tradition of storytelling not only facilitated the transmission of valuable information between generations, but it also improved the elderly’s social status. One of the many changes associated with modernized society has been placing a larger focus on youth, allowing the elderly to be marginalized within society. As a byproduct of the focus on youth in modern society, older adults have collectively experienced …


Sexuality: Issues In Adulthood, Taylor D. Michl, Amanda Kracen Apr 2025

Sexuality: Issues In Adulthood, Taylor D. Michl, Amanda Kracen

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Human sexuality in Western cultures is generally comprised of emotional intimacy, sexual identity, and sexual behavior. Sex is understood and experienced differently by people as aspects of identity (e.g., culture, race, class, gender, ability, size, religion, sexual identity) affect sexuality. Although engaging in sex is not necessary for a fulfilling life, the majority of adults in the U.S. participate in sexual activity, and regular sexual activity correlates with improved mental health (Brody, 2010).


Urie Bronfenbrenner, Wallace Fullerton, Donna Devaughn Kreskey Apr 2025

Urie Bronfenbrenner, Wallace Fullerton, Donna Devaughn Kreskey

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Urie Bronfenbrenner (born April 29, 1917, Moscow, Russia – died September 25, 2005, Ithaca, New York, U.S.) was a Russian-born American developmental psychologist. He is best known for ecological systems theory. This theory explains human development as the result of nested relationships between the individual and family, friends, schools, neighborhoods, society, and the time period in which the individual lived. Bronfenbrenner described these contexts as, matryoshka, or Russian nesting dolls. The individual was layered within multiple contexts, or systems and each system was represented by one of the nested dolls. The ecological system of each individual was built from five …


Adopted Children, Michael Galobardi, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Adopted Children, Michael Galobardi, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Views about the manner and nature of human development have changed across time (Psyking.net 2016). Some of these views have been religious (e.g., creationism) and some of these views have been more biological (e.g., preformationism).  Regardless of the focus of the view, how we believe human beings develop has a profound effect on our expectations for those beings.  One early view of human development from a biological perspective was Preformationism.  This is explained as, “A notion that was widespread among pioneer biologists in the 18th century was that the fetus, and hence the adult organism that develops from it, is …


Nursing Homes, Julian Garcia, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Nursing Homes, Julian Garcia, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Nursing homes are a type of residential care that typically provide continual nursing care for elderly people. Residential care refers to long-term care given to either adults or children who stay in a residential setting rather than their own home. Individuals who benefit most from nursing homes are those who do not need to be in a hospital but cannot live independently or be cared for at home. While nursing homes are most typically associated with the elderly, younger adults with different physical or mental disabilities may also benefit from them. The services at nursing homes often vary depending on …


Childbirth Approaches, Michael Galobardi, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Childbirth Approaches, Michael Galobardi, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

There are various approaches to childbirth, apart from the typical approach of vaginal delivery (e.g., typically done in a hospital). Another approach is a cesarean, which can classified as either an emergency or planned procedure. In the case where an emergency cesarean is needed a vaginal birth would have been detrimental to health of the mother and/or the fetus. A planned cesarean is requested ahead of time due to medical indication or requested by the mother. When requested by the mother the delivery is considered an elective surgical procedure, since it was requested without any medical or obstetrical indication. Cesareans …


Success And Intelligence, Halie B. Hamilton, Nathan C. Weed Apr 2025

Success And Intelligence, Halie B. Hamilton, Nathan C. Weed

Essays in Developmental Psychology

One of the most famous studies tracking the relationship between intelligence and success was conducted by Louis Terman. Terman’s Gifted Child Study began in the 1920s and followed nearly 1500 gifted children throughout their lives. To qualify, the children had to have an IQ of at least 140. The children were followed into adulthood to see how their intelligence was related to social and personal adjustment. Terman found that his sample showed not only positive academic outcomes, but also tended to be healthier, taller, and stronger than children with lower IQs. These positive effects persisted into adulthood. Two-thirds earned bachelor’s …


Dependent Care, Michael Galobardi, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Dependent Care, Michael Galobardi, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

The term dependent care is an umbrella for several types of care regarding family members. One can be the caretaker for disabled children, disabled adult children, or elderly parents. It is expected of parents to perform a supportive role to make sure that children get the services they need from the appropriate health care professionals.  Caring for children is only made more difficult when the child, or one of the children has a disability. It is becoming common practice for children with disabilities to be cared for at home in developing countries. Where the complex medical and physical needs of …


Attachment Theory: John Dollard And Neal Miller, Carla Cabrera, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Attachment Theory: John Dollard And Neal Miller, Carla Cabrera, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

No abstract provided.


Bio-Physiological Development During Adulthood, Maria Boix Braga, Charles J. Golden, Lisa K. Lashley Apr 2025

Bio-Physiological Development During Adulthood, Maria Boix Braga, Charles J. Golden, Lisa K. Lashley

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Defining adulthood, and what the criteria truly is to be able to consider oneself an adult, varies from culture to culture. Biologically, adulthood can also be defined as the period in which full physical and intellectual maturity has been attained. It is a period that is defined slightly differently depending on the source, but it is agreed that it tends to be considered the life period between ages 18 and 60. However, the definition of adulthood can have varying legal and sociocultural factors as well. For example, the legal definition of an adult is a person who has reached the …


Divorce, Effect On Child Development, Vijay Bajnath, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Divorce, Effect On Child Development, Vijay Bajnath, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Childhood experiences of divorce affect multiple domains of development. Cognitive, emotional and physical areas of a child’s development may be impacted by the separation.  Models of development which take into account both biological and environmental influences suggest that problems of divorce impact the parental practices towards the children which lead to difficulties in emotional regulation and insecurity. These arenas impact health in both explicit health risk behaviors as well as biological responses within the body. The combination of these seen and unseen processes contribute to an overall impact on health.


Divorce, Effects On Relationships, Nicholas Boston, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Divorce, Effects On Relationships, Nicholas Boston, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Divorce has been seen to have significant impacts on relationships both within and outside of families. In terms of friendships, the divorced couple is often seen to withdraw from other couples prior to the divorce in order to avoid sharing uncomfortable details. With more attention instead focused on friendships with individuals, divorced couples lose some, if not all, of their couple friends, whom may take sides either individually or as a couple. As well, fellow couples may not wish to be pulled into conflict. However, individual friendships tend to strengthen as the divorcees turn their freed-up time for attention towards …


Reasons For Divorce, Ryan Bennett, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Reasons For Divorce, Ryan Bennett, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Today, divorce is a common result for many couples regarding marital conflict and discord. The impacts of divorce have been linked to increased psychological distress, increased risk of substance abuse, depression, and poorer overall health when compared to non-divorced individuals (Amato, 2000; Hughes and Waite, 2009). Per Shelby Scott and colleagues, there are ten likely reasons for a couple to get divorced (Scott et al., 2013). By understanding these ten reasons, one may better conceptualize the overall factors that contribute to divorce.


Metabolic Theories Of Aging, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Metabolic Theories Of Aging, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Metabolic theories of aging postulate that aging is due to energy expenditure, which ultimately results in the breakdown and eventual death of cells. Historically, within the realm of metabolic theories of aging, there have been three models: The Rate-of-Living theory, The Oxidative Damage/Free Radical theory, and the Metabolic Stability theory. All three theories maintain that aging is directly related to metabolic rate, but the theories differ in how they arrive at that conclusion.


Mamie P. Clark, Jayla Hill, Simon Howard, Kalen Kennedy Apr 2025

Mamie P. Clark, Jayla Hill, Simon Howard, Kalen Kennedy

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Mamie Phipps Clark (born July 14, 1914 Hot Springs, Arkansas – August 11, 1983, New York City, New York) was an American developmental psychologist best known for her work on the development of African American children’s sense of self, specifically through a series of experiments conducted with her husband Kenneth Clark known as the “Doll Studies.” These studies would be instrumental in the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education court decision in which school segregation was declared unconstitutional.


James Marcia - Identity Status, L. Nicole Hammons Apr 2025

James Marcia - Identity Status, L. Nicole Hammons

Essays in Developmental Psychology

James E. Marcia is known for his research on identity development in late adolescence, specifically his identification of four identity statuses.  He was born on February 10, 1937 in Cleveland Ohio.  He was an only child and describes his family as to a stable, lower middle- to middle-class family.  Spending his childhood in Columbus, Ohio, Marcia enjoyed tennis, drama, speech, and music (he played both piano and trombone).  After exploring history, English, and philosophy, Marcia earned his undergraduate degree in psychology from Wittenberg University in Springfield, Ohio.  He also received master’s and doctoral degrees from Ohio State University, both in …


Midlife Stress, Kimberly Diah, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Midlife Stress, Kimberly Diah, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Midlife stress occurs naturally through the aging process but can be the result of an external psychological stressor due to loss or change such as occupational stress, health concerns, parental bereavement and divorce. Coping with the psychological suffering associated with these stressors brings challenges throughout all stages of life, but when it occurs during midlife it can be complicated by heightened or unique feelings of bewilderment. For men, recognition of their own mortality and sense of purpose in life can drive the experience of midlife stress. For women, this experience may be derived from feelings of emptiness and sadness, physical …


Marriage, Kim Fitzgibbon Apr 2025

Marriage, Kim Fitzgibbon

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Official legislation on the touted “fundamental right” of marriage dates back to the 1800s in the United States, showing the prominence and important that the concept of marriage has on society. Changes in laws and policy have increased the opportunity for marriage to a larger population and as such, research on the construct, its benefits, challenges and statistics has become an area of significant interest. The legal and financial implications of a marriage contract have also encouraged researchers due to the serious and long-lasting implications such a contract can have. Reasons to marry are endless, are highly individualized and can …


Adolescent Death, Kim Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Adolescent Death, Kim Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

According to recent statistics from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), there are approximately 9,500 adolescent deaths per year in the United States, as defined by mortality rates for individuals aged 15-19. CDC statistics also show that the leading causes of death for American adolescents were unintentional accidents and injuries, suicide and homicide. Furthermore, according to David Balk’s Handbook of Adolescent Death and Bereavement, gender and racial differences contribute to disproportionate mortality rates, with African American and Hispanic males finding themselves significantly more likely to be killed by homicide than Caucasian counterparts.


Marriage In Old Age, Nicole M. Fornalski, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Marriage In Old Age, Nicole M. Fornalski, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

As closely interactive cohorts throughout their adult lives, husbands and wives have been seen to become even closer confidants and partners in older age.  These changes may predominate after retirement and the loss of daily work practices and professional systems.  Older couples have frequently shared a considerable quantity of time with one another, and subsequently are able to call forth collective memories and years of intercommunications.  In addition, older adult couples usually report less conflicts, and appear to acquire more meaning out of their spousal relationships.  They also report less psychological distress and rates of illness than older singles.  These …


Role Transitions, Nicole M. Fornalski, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Role Transitions, Nicole M. Fornalski, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

A role can be defined as one’s position in a relationship or social structure, whereas a role identity consists of the behavioral expectations that are included in that role. While some individuals may view their roles through a fixed set of social standards, others rely on their own subjective perceptions and interpretations of these positions through flexible guidelines.  Through the process of a role transition, the literature identifies two types defined as a macro role transition or micro role transition.  A macro role transition consists of a psychological or physical change between consecutively held roles.  Examples can include career transitions, …


Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Fallon Flowers, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Fallon Flowers, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are diseases that can be passed from one person to another via sexual contact. Some STDs can be treated and cured, while others, once contracted, remain for a lifetime. Chlamydia is one of the more common STDs that both women and men are susceptible to. It is the result of exposure to a bacteria called Chlamydia Trachomatis. In women, the infection can occur in the cervix, throat, or rectum, while men who are infected experience the infection inside the penis (urethra), throat, and rectum. With regard to transmission, Chlamydia can be transmitted from one person to …


Embryonic Stem Cell Research, Huda Abu-Suwa, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Embryonic Stem Cell Research, Huda Abu-Suwa, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Stem cell research is a controversial issue that has received considerable attention over the last three decades. Stem cell research began in the early 1980’s, when stem cells were obtained from mice embryos and utilized to understand the functioning of stem cells (Grivennikov, 2008). In 1998, researchers discovered techniques for obtaining embryonic stem cells from human and growing them in laboratories. Since them, substantial research has been conducted on stem cells and their potential uses, which includes increasing our understanding of diseases and how they occur, treating various diseases, and testing new medications for safety and efficacy (Taylor, 2005).


Psychological Development: Cognition, Emotions, Personality, Anita Knight Kuhnley, Kelly Carapezza, Gary Sibcy Apr 2025

Psychological Development: Cognition, Emotions, Personality, Anita Knight Kuhnley, Kelly Carapezza, Gary Sibcy

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Adolescence is considered the age that bridges childhood and adulthood, Erik Erikson, who has contributed much to our understanding of the developmental stages described adolescence as, “the age mediating between childhood and adulthood (Erikson, 1997, p.xi).” Adolescence includes the sometimes tumultuous years between the ages of 11 and 21, and the Eriksons addressed this as one stage (Newman and Newman, 2013). Some authors attribute the fact that adolescence is such a trying time to the fact that adolescents lose synapses in the brain specifically in the primary visual cortex at a rate of 5,000 per second (Bears, Connor, and Paradiso, …


Personal Control Beliefs, Sarah Kurzu, Eric A. Goedereis Apr 2025

Personal Control Beliefs, Sarah Kurzu, Eric A. Goedereis

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Personal control refers to the degree to which an individual believes one is in control of his or her own life, as opposed to one’s circumstances being the result of factors outside of one’s control. An individual with high personal control has a stronger belief that he or she is able to produce desired outcomes within a designated domain. The beliefs themselves are broken down into two main constructs: external and internal control. Internal control emphasizes the responsibility of the individual and his or her actions on the outcome, while external control determines the outcome as being guided by an …


Adolescent Depression, Skip Kumm Apr 2025

Adolescent Depression, Skip Kumm

Essays in Developmental Psychology

It is common for teens to experience depression. Researchers have found that up to one in eight youth experience some form of depression during their teenage years. It is also well known that all adolescents face many unique challenges related to school, finding a college, peer pressure, and hormones, which may result periods of sadness, frustration, and despair; however, depression is more than just feeling sad or not being happy, depression is a serious mental condition different from typical adolescent experiences.


Generativity, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Generativity, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

In psychology, the term generativity refers to concern for the future and the need to offer positive contributions to future generations. The term first appeared in stage seven of Erik Erikson’s model of psychosocial development (generativity vs. stagnation). Erikson’s model postulates that generativity occurs explicitly in middle adulthood, but a more recent model of generativity created by Dan McAdams proposes that generativity occurs as a function of increasing cultural demand and concern for future generations, rather than a function of personality change (McAdams, 2001).


Birth Complications, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Birth Complications, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Complications during childbirth can pose a serious threat to both infant and maternal health. Birth complications can lead to a variety of different health risks, ranging from minor to severe in nature. The following common labor complications can happen even after a standard pregnancy with no difficulties or high risk variables.


Gifted Children, Justin Burgess, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Gifted Children, Justin Burgess, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Children can be gifted in a variety of different areas, including musical talent, athleticism, and artistic ability among others. The focus of this entry will be solely on those children who are gifted in intellectual ability and academic achievement. Identification of intellectual giftedness usually requires an individually administered intelligence test, achieving a Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ) of 130 or higher, which is a threshold that dates back to Lewis Terman’s research at Stanford in the early to mid 20th century. Although this seems like an arbitrary score, an IQ score of 130 and above is where an individual scores two …