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Language Style Matching (Lsm) And Group Cohesion: Exploring Mechanisms Behind Psychological Wellbeing In Interpersonal Psychotherapy For College Students (Ipt-Cs), Bradley Orzada, Kirby Knapp, Ellie Malone, Colleen Conley Apr 2026

Language Style Matching (Lsm) And Group Cohesion: Exploring Mechanisms Behind Psychological Wellbeing In Interpersonal Psychotherapy For College Students (Ipt-Cs), Bradley Orzada, Kirby Knapp, Ellie Malone, Colleen Conley

Undergraduate Research and Engagement Symposium

Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) has been found to be effective for improving the anxiety and depression symptoms of college students, but little is known about the therapeutic mechanisms behind IPT nor for whom IPT does not work. Language style matching (LSM), given its associations with interpersonal relationships and psychological wellbeing, may further inform IPT mechanisms and serve as a tool to predict intervention outcomes. Using data from an IPT group for college students, the present study explored how participant LSM relates to anxiety, depression, and group cohesion. Group psychotherapy transcripts of participants (N = 9) were analyzed using Linguistic Inquiry and …


The Relation Of Museum Visitors' Idea Framing Approaches And Engineering Engagement During A Community Design Puppet-Making Activity​, Adeline Sauer Apr 2026

The Relation Of Museum Visitors' Idea Framing Approaches And Engineering Engagement During A Community Design Puppet-Making Activity​, Adeline Sauer

Undergraduate Research and Engagement Symposium

Engaging in early informal learning opportunities for children provides a unique setting for fostering their engineering learning. Specifically, collaboration (e.g., sharing ideas and helping one another) can support children's learning during tinkering activities. We explore how 39 4- to 10-year-old children (Mean age = 6.63; 19 girls) and their caregivers define and engage in the engineering design process (EDP) during a hands-on puppet making activity at a children’s museum. It is hypothesized that children and caregivers who frame, or communicate, their ideas as group-centered will have the highest engagement in the EDP process over framing ideas as individual-centered and other-centered.


Why Would I Tell?: The Role Of Gender, Identity Centrality, And Responsiveness In African American Romantic Relationships, Angela Okechukwu Apr 2026

Why Would I Tell?: The Role Of Gender, Identity Centrality, And Responsiveness In African American Romantic Relationships, Angela Okechukwu

Undergraduate Research and Engagement Symposium

For African American couples, shared racial identity can help facilitate sharing of experiences of racial microaggressions (Nightingale et al., 2019). High partner responsiveness can help manage stressors (Reis, 2012), and should correlate with increased willingness to share. African American couples answered questions about experiences of microaggressions, ethnic identity centrality, and partner responsiveness. Women shared more regardless of their identity centrality. However, men lower in identity centrality were more willing to share if they perceived their partner as more responsive, while men high in identity centrality shared regardless of how responsive they thought their partner was.


Systemic Barriers To Parental Involvement In Immigrant Families: Impact On Children’S Academic Outcomes, Ama Jane Baffoe Apr 2026

Systemic Barriers To Parental Involvement In Immigrant Families: Impact On Children’S Academic Outcomes, Ama Jane Baffoe

Undergraduate Research and Engagement Symposium

This literature review examines how parental involvement and systemic barriers influence children’s academic outcomes, specifically within immigrant families. By analyzing research on language proficiency and work schedules, this study identifies how these factors limit parental participation in school-based activities. Findings indicate that while parental involvement consistently correlates with academic achievement and emotional stability, current school systems often disadvantage immigrant families facing these barriers. The review concludes that schools must develop more inclusive involvement strategies to eliminate educational inequalities and better support the success of students from diverse backgrounds.


Unpaid Internship Award Presentation By Cella Porter, Cella Porter Apr 2026

Unpaid Internship Award Presentation By Cella Porter, Cella Porter

Undergraduate Research and Engagement Symposium

As a Behavioral Health Intern at Alternatives, I support students at Theodore Roosevelt High School through weekly one-on-one mentorship meetings. Because of my impact at this unpaid internship, Loyola University of Chicago has granted me the Unpaid Internship Award. This presentation outlines my role, work, and takeaways from my time at Alternatives.


The Impact Of Prior Abusive Dating Experiences And Gender On Romance Scam Victimization And Monetary Loss, Trevor Rowe Apr 2026

The Impact Of Prior Abusive Dating Experiences And Gender On Romance Scam Victimization And Monetary Loss, Trevor Rowe

Department of Psychology

Online romance scams are a rapidly expanding cybercrime that affects millions of people each year, financially and emotionally. This study examines an underexplored question: Will individuals with a greater number of abusive partners be more vulnerable to romance scam victimizations and lose more money? Adult dating app users (N = 518) completed an online survey. After controlling for being approached for relationships, those with a greater number of past abusive partners were more likely to be victims and lost more money. In addition, men reported a higher frequency of romance scam victimizations and more money loss.


The Effectiveness Of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy: A Multilevel Meta-Analysis, Rana Hong, Jeong Ok Lee, Sanghee Lee, Shweta Singh Mar 2026

The Effectiveness Of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy: A Multilevel Meta-Analysis, Rana Hong, Jeong Ok Lee, Sanghee Lee, Shweta Singh

Social Work: School of Social Work Faculty Publications and Other Works

Objectives: Parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT) is an empirically supported treatment (EST) initially developed to help parents manage difficult behaviors in preschoolers aged 2–7 years. Given its proven effectiveness across diverse populations, this meta-analysis aims to evaluate its effectiveness for Koreans using studies from 1991 to 2022. Methods: A total of 11 studies (n = 201 children; 224 parents) met the criteria for this meta-analysis. Results: A robust pooled effect size (μ= –0.31, 95% CI [–0.44, –0.17], p < .001) for PCIT across all study designs were found. Three-level random-effects meta-regressions further confirmed a significant pooled effect (μ = –0.81, 95% CI [–1.12, –0.50], p < .001), indicating that PCIT effects were consistently significant across studies. Subgroup analyses revealed significant reductions in externalizing behavior, parenting stress, and parent depression. Discussion and implications: This study contributes to the growing body of evidence on the cultural applicability of PCIT to Korean families


Social Media And Health Disinformation, Ammar Haroon, Emily Sarmiento Feb 2026

Social Media And Health Disinformation, Ammar Haroon, Emily Sarmiento

Undergraduate Research and Engagement Symposium

In our presentation, we looked at how social media acts as a facilitator of health disinformation. In particular, we looked at the strategies that social media platforms use and how that contributes to health disinformation online.


The Dangers Of Science Denial: Creationism And Cult Organization, Elizabeth Sherman Feb 2026

The Dangers Of Science Denial: Creationism And Cult Organization, Elizabeth Sherman

Undergraduate Research and Engagement Symposium

In this research, my evaluation of my evidence led me to claim that the same factors that contribute to poor mental health outcomes in former cult members are present in the Young Earth Creationist(YEC) movement, suggesting that former YEC members may face similar mental health risks. I concluded this claim by evaluating to what extent the YEC movement’s organizational structure compared to that of cults, as defined by social psychologist Alexandra Stein, in order to evaluate if the same structures that led to negative mental health outcomes in cult members existed within the YEC movement. My evaluation led me to …


Strategies Of Science Denial In Contemporary Politics, Yumi Li Feb 2026

Strategies Of Science Denial In Contemporary Politics, Yumi Li

Undergraduate Research and Engagement Symposium

My presentation applies the FLICC acronym to different sources of science denial during the COVID-19 pandemic and Trump's handling of it.


Scrolling For Meaning: How Social Media Influence Young People’S Spirituality And Trust In Scientific Authority, Archna Yadav Feb 2026

Scrolling For Meaning: How Social Media Influence Young People’S Spirituality And Trust In Scientific Authority, Archna Yadav

Undergraduate Research and Engagement Symposium

This project examines how social media and secular digital culture influence the spiritual growth, moral values, and trust in science among young people. My claim is that social media acts like a parallel source of authority, shaping ideas about meaning, morality, and truth. Evidence from studies shows that many young people now form personal belief systems by blending religious ideas, secular practices, and even pseudo-scientific claims. The warrant is that online algorithms, influencers, emotional content, and identity-based communities strongly guide what youth believe. As a result, spiritual and moral formation is increasingly shaped by digital platforms rather than traditional institutions.


Faith And Evidence: Can Religious Belief And Science Coexist? An Investigation Of Galileo’S Discoveries And The Heliocentric Model, Amelia Atia Feb 2026

Faith And Evidence: Can Religious Belief And Science Coexist? An Investigation Of Galileo’S Discoveries And The Heliocentric Model, Amelia Atia

Undergraduate Research and Engagement Symposium

My research project focuses on the middle ground between science and religion. I focused on Galileo’s discoveries and how he experienced backlash due to his Heliocentric model, since it contradicted religious beliefs. By studying Gaileo’s model, I was able to better understand the concept of science denial. I have proposed that there’s a middle ground between science and faith. This is supported by Tycho Brahe, as he was able to propose a theory that still accepted the Geocentric model as it is applied to the physical world and also accepted the Heliocentric model as it applies to the natural world.


Manufacturing Doubt: How The Conservative Movement Shaped American Climate Denial, Bjorn Anderson Feb 2026

Manufacturing Doubt: How The Conservative Movement Shaped American Climate Denial, Bjorn Anderson

Undergraduate Research and Engagement Symposium

The American conservative movement has used its power to spread climate change denial through organizational infrastructure, psychological exploitation, and sustained messaging campaigns, producing measurable polarization in public opinion. I reference articles which document the organizational infrastructure of the movement, which study psychological mechanisms that explain conservative receptiveness to climate denial, and which detail the resulting shift in societal beliefs through data analysis and polling. These sources establish a relationship between the deliberate campaign from corporations and conservative leaders and resulting increases in climate change denial.


Built On Dignity, Backed By Love: A Mixed Methods Study And Curriculum Grounded In Black Caregivers’ Racial Socialization To Cultivate Youth Agency, Heather Watson Jan 2026

Built On Dignity, Backed By Love: A Mixed Methods Study And Curriculum Grounded In Black Caregivers’ Racial Socialization To Cultivate Youth Agency, Heather Watson

Dissertations

This dissertation explores how low-income Black youth and their caregivers experience, interpret, and respond to racial discrimination, with a focus on the development of youths’ dignity as a culturally grounded resilience process. Using a mixed-methods, community-based participatory research (CBPR) design, the study addresses three central aims: (1) to identify the forms of discrimination youth and caregivers encounter and their relationship to racial stress and resilience; (2) to define dignity from the perspectives of youth and caregivers; and (3) to identify caregiver-youth conversations that cultivate dignity and inform the development of the Dignity Development Curriculum (DDC). Data were collected through semi-structured …


Migrant Domestic Workers As Disposable Kin In Global Capitalism's Care Economy, Miguel Ceron Becerra Jan 2026

Migrant Domestic Workers As Disposable Kin In Global Capitalism's Care Economy, Miguel Ceron Becerra

Dissertations

This dissertation examines the economic, emotional, and relational harms suffered by migrant domestic workers under global capitalism. These harms are systemic, stemming from labor and migration regimes designed to sustain capital accumulation in the care economy. Affluent regions benefit from the labor of migrant domestic workers at the expense of damage to their fundamental relationships. The result is the erosion of workers' kinship ties, rendering them "disposable kin" in the eyes of those who profit economically and emotionally from their work. The study is organized into four chapters. The first explores how global care chains are structured through labor and …


Changing Lanes, Crossing Industry Lines From Higher Education To Business Leaders: A Narrative Inquiry To Understanding The Challenges Faced By Residence Life Professionals Who Had To Change Career Paths Due To The Covid-19 Pandemic, Tatianna Geneva Ingram Jan 2026

Changing Lanes, Crossing Industry Lines From Higher Education To Business Leaders: A Narrative Inquiry To Understanding The Challenges Faced By Residence Life Professionals Who Had To Change Career Paths Due To The Covid-19 Pandemic, Tatianna Geneva Ingram

Dissertations

This narrative inquiry examined how higher education residence life and housing professionals navigated career transitions into business leadership roles following the COVID-19 pandemic. Using human capital theory as a framework, the study explored the transferable skills cultivated in residence life positions and how these skills supported adaptation across industries. Participants’ narratives illuminated motivations for transition, including job market volatility, compensation concerns, and work-life balance, while also highlighting challenges encountered in reskilling and navigating identity shifts outside of higher education. The findings reveal the enduring value of competencies such as leadership, crisis management, diversity and inclusion expertise, and operational strategy in …


Alienation On Campus: Students, Agency, And A 'Praxis Of Possibility', Julia R. Allison Jan 2026

Alienation On Campus: Students, Agency, And A 'Praxis Of Possibility', Julia R. Allison

Dissertations

In the 1950s, 60s, and 70s, the idea of alienation took hold across the United States as a way of explaining feelings of disconnection, powerlessness, and meaninglessness that seemed to be pervading American society. This was no less true on college and university campuses, where students engaged in protest over both government action and inaction and a new youth counterculture took root. What led to alienation’s prominence as a social phenomenon is a matter of some debate, as are the causes of its precipitous decline in the early 70s. However, after an extended silence more recent decades have seen something …


University Resilience: Examining The Relationship Of Acute, Externally-Driven Crisis Events To University Enrollment And Financial Stability, Amy Kyhos Jan 2026

University Resilience: Examining The Relationship Of Acute, Externally-Driven Crisis Events To University Enrollment And Financial Stability, Amy Kyhos

Dissertations

This dissertation investigated the phenomenon of a significant, acute, externally-driven crisis event on university resilience at four-year, tuition-driven, public and private higher education institutions in the United States of America. The study primarily considered the resilience indicators of university undergraduate enrollment and financial stability through the crisis context of COVID-19. It is theorized that a perceived lack of reliability, flexibility, and pace to evolve that higher education exhibited during and shortly after COVID-19 is a sustained point of vulnerability to a field under increasing review from a range of stakeholders and points of financial and public pressure. The study contemplated …


Student Voices On Trauma And Resilience: A Critical Phenomenological Study Of Gun Violence And College Student Experiences, Lucia Helena Garcia Dec 2025

Student Voices On Trauma And Resilience: A Critical Phenomenological Study Of Gun Violence And College Student Experiences, Lucia Helena Garcia

Dissertations

This study posits that gun violence in the United States is a public health crisis and that colleges and universities must actively collaborate to develop and implement solutions to address and prevent this crisis, which affects communities and students. Gun violence can and does lead to disruptions in educational access, travel and safety, as well as have longstanding impacts on mental health. While extensive research exists that is focused on the impact of community and gun violence exposure on K-12 students, the impact of community violence and gun violence exposure on emerging adults in university settings is limited and remains …


Teaching And Learning With Feeling: A Qualitative Case Study Of Teacher Candidates’ Experiences With Socio-Emotional Learning, Anna Melinda Press Dec 2025

Teaching And Learning With Feeling: A Qualitative Case Study Of Teacher Candidates’ Experiences With Socio-Emotional Learning, Anna Melinda Press

Dissertations

Research on socio-emotional learning (SEL) has demonstrated its many benefits for students, justifying its prevalence in pre-kindergarten to grade 12 schools across the U.S. Despite evidence of the centrality of a teacher’s role in effective SEL implementation, less research has been conducted on teacher training in SEL – particularly for teacher candidates (TCs). The purpose of this qualitative case study was to examine TCs’ experiences with SEL, and the impact of those experiences on their development as providers of SEL. Purposive sampling was used to recruit TCs in either the second or third year of one specific undergraduate, field-based teacher …


Post-Translational Modifications Of Psd-95 In Glutamatergic Synapses, Sai Kanuru, Het T. Gor, Lauren Kohlsaat, Daniel Bichao Paiva Parada,, Xela Bui, Jary Delgado Nov 2025

Post-Translational Modifications Of Psd-95 In Glutamatergic Synapses, Sai Kanuru, Het T. Gor, Lauren Kohlsaat, Daniel Bichao Paiva Parada,, Xela Bui, Jary Delgado

Undergraduate Research and Engagement Symposium

PSD-95 is a pivotal postsynaptic scaffolding protein that regulates synaptic maturation, receptor localization, and signaling proteins, including mediating NMDA receptor clustering and function in synaptic plasticity. NMDA receptor-dependent LTD is dependent on multiple post-translational modifications. One of these modifications, phosphorylation of PSD-95, destabilizes the protein which can prompt the exit of associated AMPARs from postsynaptic spines. Our investigations highlight a potential factor in PSD-95 destabilization, isomerization of phospho-T19 by Pin1. We hypothesize that Pin1 mediated phosphorylation of PSD-95 may either protect or target PSD-95 for ubiquitination, playing a critical role in NMDAR-LTD.


Institutional Belonging And College Success In A Neoliberal Environment, Alicia C. Figueroa Oct 2025

Institutional Belonging And College Success In A Neoliberal Environment, Alicia C. Figueroa

Dissertations

As higher education evolves in response to various pressures, adult learner graduate students, particularly women who are mothers, find themselves navigating a complex landscape shaped by neoliberal ideals of belonging. This research aimed to explore the multifaceted notions of belonging within a neoliberal environment and provide insight into a growing sector of this college student population. The project sought to illuminate the unique experiences of female adult learner graduate students, especially mothers, as they increasingly return to college post-COVID-19. Employing a qualitative phenomenological research design, this study gathered diverse narratives from this sub-population. The methodology utilized purposeful sampling for semi-structured …


Analyzing Adversarial Strategies And Countermeasures For Cyberbullying Detection, Maddie Juarez, Eldor Abdukhamidov, Manuel Sandoval, Deborah Hall, Mujtaba Nazari, George Thiruvathukal, Tamer Abuhmed, Yasin Silva, Mohammed Abuhamad Oct 2025

Analyzing Adversarial Strategies And Countermeasures For Cyberbullying Detection, Maddie Juarez, Eldor Abdukhamidov, Manuel Sandoval, Deborah Hall, Mujtaba Nazari, George Thiruvathukal, Tamer Abuhmed, Yasin Silva, Mohammed Abuhamad

Computer Science: Faculty Publications and Other Works

Cyberbullying on social networking sites has become more prevalent. Most cyberbullying detection models often lack consideration of adversarial threads, leaving them vulnerable. This study evaluates the resilience of text-based cyberbullying detection models, constrained by limited available datasets, against word-level substitutions and character-level perturbations. We consider well-established ML techniques with real-world data and more recent LLM-based approaches to uncover model weaknesses. The results reveal that adversarial attacks can significantly reduce detection accuracy, e.g., most models are vulnerable to word- and character-level attacks with success rates up to 88% and 44%, respectively. We also find that LLM-based models such as CyberBERT are …


Understanding Of Internalizing And Externalizing Behaviors Among Youth Who Are Racial Minorities: Identification Of Race-Specific Violence Protective Factors, Caleb Kim, Rana Hong, Hien Nguyen, Raheleh A. Fakhrabadi Sep 2025

Understanding Of Internalizing And Externalizing Behaviors Among Youth Who Are Racial Minorities: Identification Of Race-Specific Violence Protective Factors, Caleb Kim, Rana Hong, Hien Nguyen, Raheleh A. Fakhrabadi

Social Work: School of Social Work Faculty Publications and Other Works

This study examined how ecosystemic factors—gender, exposure to community violence, attachment to parents, children’s hope, commitment to school, and concern about community safety—affect internalizing and externalizing behaviors among African American, Latinx, and Asian American youth (N = 212) in Chicago. Additionally, this study tested whether CH served as a moderating factor in the relationship between concern about CCS and internalizing and externalizing behaviors among youth who are racial minorities. Hierarchical multivariate regression analyses found that the effects of ecosystemic factors varied depending on the youth’s racial contexts. The moderating effects of CH were found to reduce internalizing and externalizing behaviors …


Patterns Of Resilience, Patterns Of Tragedy: Perspectives From Inside And Outside To Theorize Beneficial Interventions Serving Urban African American Youth Struggling With Community Violence, Katherine Tyson Mccrea, Kevin Miller, Amzie Moore, Heather L. Watson Sep 2025

Patterns Of Resilience, Patterns Of Tragedy: Perspectives From Inside And Outside To Theorize Beneficial Interventions Serving Urban African American Youth Struggling With Community Violence, Katherine Tyson Mccrea, Kevin Miller, Amzie Moore, Heather L. Watson

Social Work: School of Social Work Faculty Publications and Other Works

Community violence, defined as violence perpetrated in community as opposed to home settings, is a salient social problem, causing terror and tragedy, especially in urban, low-income communities of color. Interventions supporting youth struggling with community violence have been insufficiently studied and theorized, especially from strengths-focused, culturally relevant standpoints in the context of contemporary social policies. This paper outlines psychodynamic theoretical models for services that have been developed via participatory research and provided for 19 years for over 1000 youth. Then, to understand how youth make use of the programs from an “inside” perspective, four intensive case examples are described. From …


Give People Money: The Effect Of Perceived Inequality In Everyday Life And Previous Cash-Transfer Programs On Support For Universal Basic Income, David Thomas Igliozzi Sep 2025

Give People Money: The Effect Of Perceived Inequality In Everyday Life And Previous Cash-Transfer Programs On Support For Universal Basic Income, David Thomas Igliozzi

Dissertations

Economic inequality is a global concern with many adverse consequences for people across class divides. These consequences vary in scope—from negative effects on individual’s physical, mental, and social health to large-scale economic shifts which result from climate change (Galbraith & Hale, 2008; Hiesh & Pugh, 1993; Kaplan et al., 1996; La Ferrara & Alesina, 2000; Solt, 2008; Vilhjalmsdottir et al., 2016; Wilkinson & Pickett, 2007). Policy solutions meant to address the negative effects of economic inequality include government redistribution of wealth. Universal Basic Income (UBI), a specific and actionable policy of government redistribution, is a promising method of economic inequality …


“The Wonderful Swiftness Of The Soul”: Mental Movement And Religious Ethics In Medieval English Literature, Abigail Palmisano Sep 2025

“The Wonderful Swiftness Of The Soul”: Mental Movement And Religious Ethics In Medieval English Literature, Abigail Palmisano

Dissertations

This dissertation analyzes conceptual metaphors of psychological motion and stability in medieval English religious literature. I trace how language itself structures cultural approaches to epistemology, spiritual knowing, and virtue. Chapter One examines Alfred’s translation of Neoplatonic metaphors of psychological movement in the OE translations of The Consolation of Philosophy and Augustine’s Soliloquies. I argue that the reconfiguration of these metaphors into images of stability reveals an epistemology centered on certainty. Chapter Two compares the omission of motive psychological metaphor in Cynewulf’s Juliana and Ælfric’s “St. Agatha and St. Lucy” in process of translation. While Cynewulf’s depiction of virtue through stability …


The Social Aesthetics Of Recognition, Italo Alves Sep 2025

The Social Aesthetics Of Recognition, Italo Alves

Dissertations

The history of social philosophy is a history of suspicion toward the aesthetic (1). However, since we apprehend social reality fundamentally through its aesthetic appearances, an account is needed of how “the aesthetic” must enter the social-philosophical discourse, particularly in reconstructive models of social critique. I call this account “social aesthetics.” Social aesthetics illuminates how certain social experiences generate normative claims even in the lack of discursive articulation. (2) I argue that the philosophy of recognition, concerned with this relationship between social experience and normative claim-making, contains an unacknowledged aesthetic dimension, which I uncover through a critical reading of Axel …


Examining The Impact Of Technology-Enhanced Peer Mentorship On First-Year University Students’ Mental Health And Academic Success, Maya Hareli Sep 2025

Examining The Impact Of Technology-Enhanced Peer Mentorship On First-Year University Students’ Mental Health And Academic Success, Maya Hareli

Dissertations

Poor mental health among first-year college students has been associated with a plethora of unfavorable outcomes including worsening mental health problems later in college as well as declines in academic performance, rates of college retention, and postgraduate employment and income potential. While demand for mental health services on college campuses is high, there are various barriers to accessing these services. Peer mentoring is a resource-efficient solution for curbing college student mental health and academic challenges; however, the effects of past mentoring programs are inconsistent. Additionally, technology-delivered interventions (TDIs) have been shown to yield positive outcomes for young adults along various …


More Than Trauma: The Story Of Intergenerational Survival, Tiffany Fang Sep 2025

More Than Trauma: The Story Of Intergenerational Survival, Tiffany Fang

Dissertations

Parental trauma can have a profound effect on children. The process of passing along traumatic experiences, known as the intergenerational transmission of trauma (IGT) and the process of passing along adaptations to these adverse circumstances, known as the intergenerational transmission of resilience (IGR), have been explored in populations such as survivors of the Holocaust and war refugees (Danieli et al., 2017; Kellermann, 2001; Sangalang & Vang, 2017). This study sought to extend findings to Chinese American immigrant families, many of whom experienced trauma in the form of war, sociopolitical violence, and poverty in 20th-century China. Despite the presence of these …