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Syllabus Psy 201: Psychological Research, Valeriia Modina Aug 2026

Syllabus Psy 201: Psychological Research, Valeriia Modina

Open Educational Resources

Syllabus for PSY 201: Psychological Research, taught at the College of Staten Island in Fall 2026. Psychologists use the scientific process to collect information about human behavior. This enables them to develop valid and reliable explanations about behavior. This course will review the research process from the formulation of a research question through the publication of research findings. We will examine various data collection methods including observation, interview, survey, quasi-experimental, and experimental. Students will also be introduced to the way in which statistics help us understand and interpret the information we collect about behavior.


Ruslan-M: Longitudinal Multimedia Corpus Of Early Child Speech In Russian, Mariia Diachkova, Valeriya Lelik, Svetlana V. Dorofeeva, Anastasiya Lopukhina, Olga Dragoy, Irina A. Sekerina Aug 2026

Ruslan-M: Longitudinal Multimedia Corpus Of Early Child Speech In Russian, Mariia Diachkova, Valeriya Lelik, Svetlana V. Dorofeeva, Anastasiya Lopukhina, Olga Dragoy, Irina A. Sekerina

Publications and Research

This article presents the Russian Language-Monolingual corpus (RusLan-M, v.1.0), a longitudinal multimedia collection of early child speech from two Russian-speaking monolingual children: Tosya (ages 0;10–3;10, 246 recordings) and Yasha (ages 1;04–3;00, 42 recordings). The corpus consists of approximately 41 h (2,454 min.) of video recordings and 35,386 child utterances, available with transcriptions in the CHAT format on TalkBank. The corpus adheres to strict ethics requirements for data sharing with anonymization. We also conducted two exploratory investigations of the acquisition of Russian morphology using the mean length of utterance (MLU) and the newly developed Index of Productive Syntax for evaluating grammatical …


Syllabus: Political Philosophy (Philo 24600 / Polsc 20401), Georgie Malone Aug 2026

Syllabus: Political Philosophy (Philo 24600 / Polsc 20401), Georgie Malone

Open Educational Resources

This syllabus was created for Political Philosophy (PHILO 24600) (POLSC 20401) at Hunter College. It is an intermediate/advanced introduction to key texts in the history of political philosophy. Course description: In this course, we will journey through the major contributions of those thinkers that have shaped the field we call political philosophy. We will begin with Plato and Aristotle, followed by the social contract theorists of the early modern period—Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau—before turning to the critical perspectives of Fanon and Marx. We will then turn to the vastly influential work of 20th century liberal philosopher John Rawls and …


Info 7001: Technology Of Information, S E. Hackney Aug 2026

Info 7001: Technology Of Information, S E. Hackney

Open Educational Resources

BULLETIN DESCRIPTION INFO 7001. The Technology of Information. 3 hr.; 3cr. The course will introduce the conceptual and practical elements of visual and computer literacy for the library and information science profession. Particular attention will be paid to libraries and information centers.

EXPANDED COURSE DESCRIPTION The evolution into the age of information has created a requirement that professional librarians establish and steadily increase their understanding of four areas of literacy: oral, print, visual, and technology. Professional training has long been concentrated on the oral and printed aspects of information with some minor attention to the visual and technological. Library and …


Measuring The Tokenization Premium: A Cost Audit For Underserved Language Communities, Avijit Roy, Proma Roy, Hrishitva Patel Aug 2026

Measuring The Tokenization Premium: A Cost Audit For Underserved Language Communities, Avijit Roy, Proma Roy, Hrishitva Patel

Publications and Research

Large language models are increasingly deployed as general-purpose educational and technical assistance systems, but their basic infrastructure does not treat languages equally. One underexamined source of disparity is tokenization: semantically equivalent content can require substantially different token counts across languages, affecting API cost, latency, and usable context length before a model is even invoked. We introduce the Tokenization Equity Audit (TEA), a reproducible benchmark for measuring tokenization premiums in technical tutoring content. TEA evaluates three widely used tokenizers, GPT-4o’s o200k base, Qwen2.5-7B, and Mistral-7B, on a 120-item Python debugging corpus translated from English into Bengali, Hindi, Arabic, Tamil, and Yoruba. …


Real Bullets, Plastic Guns: Evaluating The Strength Of 3-D Printed Gun Parts, Maria Latenia Mayol Aug 2026

Real Bullets, Plastic Guns: Evaluating The Strength Of 3-D Printed Gun Parts, Maria Latenia Mayol

Student Theses

Privately made firearms (PMFs), often referred to as “ghost guns,” are firearms manufactured or assembled by individuals rather than federally licensed manufacturers. Although the terms are frequently used interchangeably, “ghost gun” more specifically describes an unserialized firearm, whereas PMFs include a broader range of firearms produced through nontraditional manufacturing methods. PMFs may be entirely 3-D printed, assembled from partially completed firearm kits, or constructed by integrating additively manufactured components with commercially manufactured firearm parts. The increasing accessibility of additive manufacturing and widespread dissemination of computer-aided design files have raised concerns about concealment, regulation, and forensic evasion, particularly when factory-manufactured components …


Tubuh Yang Mengingat (The Body Remembers): Ecology, Ritual, And Embodied Memory In Contemporary Cirebon Mask Performance, Prameswari Mrajabwana Aug 2026

Tubuh Yang Mengingat (The Body Remembers): Ecology, Ritual, And Embodied Memory In Contemporary Cirebon Mask Performance, Prameswari Mrajabwana

Theses and Dissertations

Tubuh yang Mengingat (The Body Remembers) is a single-channel, site-specific performance film set across coastal and extractive landscapes in Cirebon, West Java, Indonesia. Reinterpreting the five transformations of Cirebonese mask dance—Panji, Pamindo, Rumyang, Tumenggung, and Kelana—the project examines how colonial extraction, ecological deterioration, and systems of social regulation continue to shape embodied experience materially and somatically. Drawing from Karen Barad’s concept of intra-action and Stacy Alaimo’s notion of trans-corporeality, the work approaches body, land, technology, and history as relationally entangled rather than separate entities. Through live biodata sonification generated from environmental sensors and bodily movement, the film establishes …


Queer Postsecular Conocimiento: Anzaldúan Readings Of Time, Spirituality, And Transformation In Nugent, Vuong, And Herrera, Joshua A. Swem Aug 2026

Queer Postsecular Conocimiento: Anzaldúan Readings Of Time, Spirituality, And Transformation In Nugent, Vuong, And Herrera, Joshua A. Swem

Theses and Dissertations

An overreliance on secularism within the field of queer theory and a denial of spiritual epistemologies prevent deep, alternative, and transformative strategies of analyzing literature. It can regurgitate oppressive ideology in academia. In this work, I synthesize Gloria Anzaldúa’s theoretical concepts of mestiza consciousness, nepantla, la facultad, and el cenote with José Esteban Muñoz’s queer temporality and futurity as a framework to engage with literary texts in queer, postsecular ways, freeing up fresh insights and polysemic perspectives. I argue that in  "Smoke, Lilies, and Jade" by Richard Bruce Nugent, Signs Preceding the End of the World by Yuri …


Extreme Heat And Its Impact On Public Transit Ridership In Nyc, Craig Denton Aug 2026

Extreme Heat And Its Impact On Public Transit Ridership In Nyc, Craig Denton

Theses and Dissertations

This thesis explores the connection between extreme heat events and public transit ridership patterns in New York City, with a particular emphasis on low-income communities. It investigates the intersection of socioeconomic factors and heat-related challenges, analyzing how extreme temperature periods influence overall transit use and why certain routes or neighborhoods experience greater declines in ridership during these events.

Utilizing existing literature, NYC-specific transit and climate datasets, and the broader context of transit equity, this research aims to inform strategies that strengthen climate resilience within urban transportation systems. The study’s findings are intended to support policy development and planning initiatives that …


Green Extractivism And The Discursive Legitimization Of Deep-Sea Mining In The Clarion-Clipperton Zone, Kaitlyn Maritan Aug 2026

Green Extractivism And The Discursive Legitimization Of Deep-Sea Mining In The Clarion-Clipperton Zone, Kaitlyn Maritan

Theses and Dissertations

This thesis critically examines deep-sea mining as an example of green extractivism, constructed through narratives of responsible mining practices. A content analysis assesses the discursive tactics of four actors in the emerging industry; how they collectively legitimize deep-sea mining and manage the contradictions of sustainability and extractivism.


The Introduction Of High-Speed Rail And Its Impact On Mode Choice The Case Of Morocco’S Al Boraq, Michael Stewart Aug 2026

The Introduction Of High-Speed Rail And Its Impact On Mode Choice The Case Of Morocco’S Al Boraq, Michael Stewart

Theses and Dissertations

Morocco's Al Boraq, Africa's first high-speed rail line, reshaped mode choice along the Casablanca-Tangier corridor. Drawing on ONCF ridership data, 234 rider surveys, and nine months of fieldwork, this ex-post assessment finds accelerated passenger growth, substantial induced demand, and mode shift from automobiles, informing Global South HSR development.


Ssw 701.50: Social Welfare Policy, Ian G. Williams Aug 2026

Ssw 701.50: Social Welfare Policy, Ian G. Williams

Open Educational Resources

This syllabus is an Open Educational Resources (OER) remixed version of SSW 701.50: Social Welfare Policy, which is taught at the Silberman School of Social Work at Hunter College. This version updated the content and integrated additional OER materials, as part of the Summer 2026 cohort of The Open Knowledge Fellowship at the Mina Rees Library. It is a Zero-Textbook (ZTC) cost course and integrates materials from a range of academic disciplines. Official course description is as follows:

"This foundation course furnishes you with the orienting knowledge and skills needed to examine social welfare policies and to understand their relevance …


Enhanced Transdermal Immunization Via Solid-In-Oil Nanodispersions Incorporating Dendritic Cell-Targeting Peptide, Md Samiul Islam, Md. Shahin Ekka Sarker, Yoshirou Kawaguchi, Rie Wakabayashi, Noriho Kamiya, Muhammad Moniruzzaman, Masahiro Goto Jul 2026

Enhanced Transdermal Immunization Via Solid-In-Oil Nanodispersions Incorporating Dendritic Cell-Targeting Peptide, Md Samiul Islam, Md. Shahin Ekka Sarker, Yoshirou Kawaguchi, Rie Wakabayashi, Noriho Kamiya, Muhammad Moniruzzaman, Masahiro Goto

Publications and Research

Transdermal immunization represents a promising needle-free alternative to conventional vaccination. However, efficient antigen delivery and robust immune activation remain major challenges. In this study, a solid-in-oil (S/O) nanodispersion system comprising a dendritic cell-targeting peptide (HR8), ovalbumin (OVA), and an adjuvant was developed for transdermal immunization. The HR8 peptide along with OVA was successfully incorporated into an S/O nanodispersion with an optimal hydrodynamic diameter of particles (< 200 nm) and exhibited stable physical properties for up to 90 days. In vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated enhanced antigen delivery with insignificant skin irritation in C57BL/6N mice. Moreover, in vivo transdermal immunization studies demonstrated that the addition of the HR8 peptide enhanced OVA-specific IgG responses (~1.5-fold). Notably, the HR8 peptide also promoted an approximately 2.5-fold increase in IgG2c levels, suggesting a shift toward a more T helper type 1-biased immune response, as reflected by an increased IgG2c/IgG1 ratio. Overall, these findings demonstrate that the incorporation of HR8 peptide into an S/O nanodispersion enables efficient transdermal antigen delivery and improved immunogenicity, highlighting its potential as a simple, non-invasive, and patient-friendly immunization strategy.


Generative Ai Adoption And Perceived Academic Impact Among Undergraduate Students: A Cross-National Study In Indonesia, Tajikistan, And The United States, Vyacheslav Dushenkov, Ernawati Sinaga, Astri Rozanah Siregar, Alamkhon Akhmedov, Saidbeg Satorov Jul 2026

Generative Ai Adoption And Perceived Academic Impact Among Undergraduate Students: A Cross-National Study In Indonesia, Tajikistan, And The United States, Vyacheslav Dushenkov, Ernawati Sinaga, Astri Rozanah Siregar, Alamkhon Akhmedov, Saidbeg Satorov

Publications and Research

Generative artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly transforming higher education, yet comparative evidence from diverse international settings remains limited. This cross-national study examined undergraduate students’ adoption and perceived academic impact of generative AI tools at institutions in Indonesia, Tajikistan, and the United States. A harmonized online survey was administered to 584 undergraduates during Spring 2026 (Indonesia n = 235; Tajikistan n = 226; United States n = 123). The survey assessed AI familiarity, adoption patterns, frequency and purpose of use, perceived academic impact, and factors encouraging AI engagement. AI adoption differed significantly across sites, with the highest adoption observed in Indonesia …


Music History 10100: A Thousand Years Of Listening, Sophia Stoyanovich Jul 2026

Music History 10100: A Thousand Years Of Listening, Sophia Stoyanovich

Open Educational Resources

A Thousand Years of Listening is an undergraduate music history course elective at Hunter College that introduces students to the history of Western art music from the medieval era to the present through focused listening and musical analysis. Designed for students with no prior musical training, the course develops critical listening skills while exploring major composers, genres, styles, and historical contexts. Through listening, discussion, writing, and a live concert experience, students learn to engage with music as informed and thoughtful listeners.


Ai-Powered Knowledge Engines As Research Infrastructure For Systematic Knowledge Discovery, Gary Welz Jul 2026

Ai-Powered Knowledge Engines As Research Infrastructure For Systematic Knowledge Discovery, Gary Welz

Publications and Research

This paper proposes knowledge engines as a framework for understanding how intelligent systems — both human and artificial — systematically discover, integrate, and generate knowledge. We argue that history’s greatest scientific minds functioned as knowledge engines, processing information through iterative cycles of ingestion, analysis, synthesis, and communication, guided by curiosity and willingness to challenge established beliefs.

We propose a taxonomy of nine integrated capabilities — ingestion, digestion, analysis, calculation, comparison, connection, association, analogy, and multimodal communication — that any serious knowledge engine must combine systematically. The argument is deliberately integrative: achieving ambitious research goals requires orchestrating all nine capabilities within …


Climate Anxiety And Nurses’ Awareness, Motivation, And Behaviors In Addressing Climate-Related Health Risks, Sarah Kaplan Jul 2026

Climate Anxiety And Nurses’ Awareness, Motivation, And Behaviors In Addressing Climate-Related Health Risks, Sarah Kaplan

Theses and Dissertations

Background: Climate anxiety, the emotional distress associated with awareness of climate change and its consequences, is an emerging mental health concern that may influence how nurses perceive and respond to climate-related health risks. Climate change is largely driven by emissions of greenhouse gases which radiate and absorb heat. Human-caused climate change is leading to higher average global temperatures and increasing risk to health through poor air quality, changes in vector borne diseases, extreme weather events, and exacerbation and development of physical and mental illnesses. This study contributes to nursing science by examining climate anxiety and climate related health practices among …


"Unmuted America": Oer Assignment And Syllabi For Law/Pol 313 Racial Politics, Camara Silver Jul 2026

"Unmuted America": Oer Assignment And Syllabi For Law/Pol 313 Racial Politics, Camara Silver

Open Educational Resources

Professor Camara Silver created an open syllabus for LAW/POL 313 Racial Politics that includes Unmuted America: Power at Full Volume, a modular political science assignment series. The syllabus and assignment were created as part of an OER course conversion initiative during Spring 2026. The series asks students to examine how power is organized, narrated, defended, and challenged in American public life. Each version uses a two-part structure: “Volume Up,” in which students examine the historical roots, institutional foundations, and present-day structure of a major political issue, and “Volume Down,” in which students analyze a specific case study, source base, …


Trustworthiness As Inferential Accountability In Qualitative Research, Aamir Rashid, Rizwana Rasheed Jul 2026

Trustworthiness As Inferential Accountability In Qualitative Research, Aamir Rashid, Rizwana Rasheed

Publications and Research

Trustworthiness is a cornerstone of qualitative research rigor, yet it is frequently operationalized as a procedural checklist rather than as a coherent logic for justifying qualitative knowledge claims. As a result, qualitative studies often demonstrate methodological diligence without fully explicating how empirical materials warrant the interpretations advanced or how the scope of those interpretations should be bounded. The purpose of this paper is to reconceptualize trustworthiness as inferential accountability, understood as a governing evaluative principle for qualitative inquiry that provides a coherent and contemporary framework for the justification, evaluation, and delimitation of qualitative claims. The paper adopts a conceptual and …


Transforming Advising And Improving Outcomes: Assessing Impacts Of Advising Changes, Amy S. White, Tailisha Gonzalez, Elgloria Harrison Jul 2026

Transforming Advising And Improving Outcomes: Assessing Impacts Of Advising Changes, Amy S. White, Tailisha Gonzalez, Elgloria Harrison

Publications and Research

Abstract

Background: Earning full-time credit loads and persisting are how college students successfully graduate.

Objective: We measured whether credits and persistence at an urban, commuter Hispanic/Minority-Sserving Iinstitution improved after implementing a social work-based advisement strategy.

Methods: Using a quasi-experimental methodology on a college’s enrollment database, we measured the impact of a new advisement model on earned and attempted credit loads to compare traditional student advisement within control groups (n = 171 and n = 899) relative to intervention (n = 130).

Findings: In 2024, the intervention group attempted an average of 14.7 credits and earned an average of 14.3 credits, …


Notes From The Field - Conference Proceedings, Summer Fellows 2025, Center For Latin American, Caribbean, And Latino Studies (Clacls) Jul 2026

Notes From The Field - Conference Proceedings, Summer Fellows 2025, Center For Latin American, Caribbean, And Latino Studies (Clacls)

Center for Latin American, Caribbean, and Latino Studies

CLACLS presents proceedings papers from the third CLACLS Summer Fellows Showcase Conference, held on November 12, 2025.

The daylong event showcased the research endeavors of fourteen Summer Fellows, who offered succinct presentations on their projects funded by the CLACLS Summer fellowship. The included three panels: “Feminist and Queer Critical Perspectives”, “Language, Archive and Power”, “Social Movements and Political Imaginations.”


Signal And Substance: Why Methodological Sophistication Fails To Guarantee Inference, Aamir Rashid, Rizwana Rasheed Jul 2026

Signal And Substance: Why Methodological Sophistication Fails To Guarantee Inference, Aamir Rashid, Rizwana Rasheed

Publications and Research

Despite increasing analytical sophistication, empirical research in organization studies continues to suffer from fragile inference, uneven theoretical accumulation, and contested credibility. This paper seeks to explain why these problems persist by shifting attention from authors’ methodological choices to the evaluative dynamics of peer review. Adopting a conceptual and theory-analytic approach, the paper theorizes peer review as an inferential gatekeeping system. Drawing on research design, theory evaluation, and philosophy-of-science literatures, this study develops an analytical framework to examine how evaluative routines shape what constitutes empirical rigor during the review process. The analysis identifies five recurring reviewer blind spots: inferential scope inflation, …


Older Adults' Caregiving Expectations For The Future, Smita Ekka Dewan, Derek Tice-Brown, Janna C. Heyman, Henry J. Davis, Colette Phipps, Joanne Mcmahon, Laura Sutter, Ye Feng, Jacqueline Heyde Jul 2026

Older Adults' Caregiving Expectations For The Future, Smita Ekka Dewan, Derek Tice-Brown, Janna C. Heyman, Henry J. Davis, Colette Phipps, Joanne Mcmahon, Laura Sutter, Ye Feng, Jacqueline Heyde

Publications and Research

The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to explore older adults' perception of caregiver stress and their anticipation of becoming a caregiver (N = 723). Bivariate analyses revealed that perceived caregiving stress was higher among older adults who were females, White/Non-Hispanics, with chronic health conditions, who had experienced prior physical and financial caregiving burdens and was lower among those with just a high school degree. Multivariate analyses revealed that perceived caregiving stress levels remained higher only for those with past experience with physical caregiving, those with chronic health conditions, older females and White/Non-Hispanic older adults. The overall model was …


The Double Attraction Paradox, Rem Jaen D. Krafft Jul 2026

The Double Attraction Paradox, Rem Jaen D. Krafft

Publications and Research

The Double Attraction Paradox is a podcast series that teaches adolescents how to navigate attraction through body language, limerence, and mirroring while understanding the psychology behind emotional connection. It is a manuscript that combines personal experience, observations, and research, inspired by Rem Jaen D. Krafft's high school crush. Not only does it provide a guide for teenagers and young adults, but it also encourages readers to better understand attraction, communication, and emotional development. The final chapter examines how peer pressure, traditional high school cliques, fear of rejection, and fear of intimacy may influence societal norms, emotional contagion, and relationship formation …


Childhood Development Podcast Assignment, Masha Komolova Jul 2026

Childhood Development Podcast Assignment, Masha Komolova

Open Educational Resources

The assignment asks students to analyze how a particular aspect of their childhood has shaped them into a person they are today. Students will use literature review, interview with a caregiver, and their own reflection to analyze their childhood development and its effects on them. The assignment will be in the form of a podcast.


Ai-Resistant And Ai-Resilient Assessment In Higher Education: A Systematic Review Of Validity-Grounded Strategies, Institutional Frameworks, And Equity Implications, Asrat Genet Amnie Jul 2026

Ai-Resistant And Ai-Resilient Assessment In Higher Education: A Systematic Review Of Validity-Grounded Strategies, Institutional Frameworks, And Equity Implications, Asrat Genet Amnie

Publications and Research

The emergence of large language models has precipitated a fun damental disruption to higher education assessment. Conventional instruments are susceptible to AI-assisted completion, threatening construct validity across disciplines and institutional contexts. When submitted work reflects AI capability rather than student competency, the inferential chain from performance to qualifica tion is invalidated – a problem of design rather than detection. This systematic review makes two contributions. First, it theorises and grounds the distinction between AI-resistant assessment, which seeks to prevent or impede AI access through containment, and AI-resilient assessment, which assesses genuine human cogni tive performance of intrinsic educational value regardless …


Chi Meta-Project Ecosystem Overview - Spring 2026, David B. Smith Jul 2026

Chi Meta-Project Ecosystem Overview - Spring 2026, David B. Smith

Publications and Research

This paper offers a high-level account of the Center for Holistic Integration’s (CHI) meta-project ecosystem as visualized in the included system map. CHI provides an organizational structure framed around persistent meta-projects that support and extend individual initiatives across curriculum, scholarly and applied research, infrastructure, artistic production, AI development, cultural inquiry, and external partnerships. Rather than presenting the map as a static inventory of projects, the paper examines how its core domains function as living systems through which knowledge, tools, documentation, participants, and collaborations can accumulate over time. It also considers how CHI-mediated connectivity, institutional integration, and external funding allow the …


Assessment Of Information Literacy Instruction In Reference: Applying Vanscoy’S Conceptual And Procedural Framework In Practice, Vanessa Arce Jul 2026

Assessment Of Information Literacy Instruction In Reference: Applying Vanscoy’S Conceptual And Procedural Framework In Practice, Vanessa Arce

Publications and Research

The instructional aspect of reference work has long been acknowledged, especially in academic libraries. The current RUSA guidelines include helping users develop information literacy as a goal of reference. In this context, investigating the presence and nature of information literacy instruction can be used to assess the quality of reference services. This study applied Amy VanScoy’s conceptual/procedural framework for point-of-need instruction to a sample of chat reference transcripts at Lehman College, City University of New York. One of the assessment’s goals was to determine the prevalence of instruction and type of knowledge addressed in reference interactions. Another goal was to …


Highly Confident But Slightly Uncertain: A Long Overdue Reinvention Of The School Scientific Method, Teaching - Volume 4, Stephen Demeo Jul 2026

Highly Confident But Slightly Uncertain: A Long Overdue Reinvention Of The School Scientific Method, Teaching - Volume 4, Stephen Demeo

Publications and Research

In Volume 4, the last book of the series, I continue the argument for greater parity between conceptual knowledge—the "what" of science—and methodological knowledge—the "how" of science—but in the context of teacher instruction. To this end, two literature reviews are presented: One on how students build confidence, specifically regarding the reliability or consistency of measurement or results, and the other on scientific uncertainty. Research studies focusing on student misconceptions are summarized and organized from the elementary to the college level. These literature reviews describe invaluable ways for teachers to improve their instruction, while providing examples of experiments that can be …


His 127 Microhistories: A Lens Into The Past — Apartheid In South Africa Syllabus, Marta Millar Jul 2026

His 127 Microhistories: A Lens Into The Past — Apartheid In South Africa Syllabus, Marta Millar

Open Educational Resources

The microhistory course introduces students to the study of history by exploring a particular event, individual, or issue, and its legacy. Students will read both primary source documents and modern texts to examine how the topic under consideration was shaped by, and in turn shaped contemporary culture.

This syllabus is for a course focusing on the history of apartheid in South Africa. Students will analyze the political, social, economic, and cultural aspects of the apartheid era. This includes understanding how segregationist policies developed in South Africa, what political transformations led to the implementation of the apartheid system, how different policies …