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Sweet And Sour: The Representations Of Chinese Americans In American Popular Culture, 2010-2020, Yu Dong Nov 2021

Sweet And Sour: The Representations Of Chinese Americans In American Popular Culture, 2010-2020, Yu Dong

Student Theses and Dissertations

ABSTRACT Yu Dong SWEET AND SOUR: THE REPRESENTATIONS OF CHINESE AMERICANS IN AMERICAN POPULAR CULTURE, 2010-2020 The history of Chinese Americans can be traced back to the 1850s. From “filthy foreigner” to “model minority” to “virus spreader,” White Americans’ attitudes and perceptions toward Chinese Americans have been vague and ambivalent and constantly shifting back and forth in different time periods. However, one thing has never changed – Chinese Americans are perpetual foreigners. The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the representations of Chinese Americans in American popular culture (2010-2020) by comparing these images in Americans’ minds with Chinese American …


Migrant Misconceptions: A Review Of Literature On National Heritage, Immigration Status, And Juvenile Offending, Serita Whiting Nov 2021

Migrant Misconceptions: A Review Of Literature On National Heritage, Immigration Status, And Juvenile Offending, Serita Whiting

Contemporary Issues in Juvenile Justice

In 2020, the Pew Research Center reported over 40 million Latinx adults are immigrants and nearly 23% are U.S.-born adult children of immigrant parents. Some rhetoric that surrounds immigration is indicative of crime, criminals, and the need to build a wall to protect the U.S. border from migrant crossing. In the U.S., immigration policies apply a 'securitized' approach to criminal law enforcement involving Latinos. However, criminological literature indicates immigrants do not pose any more of a threat towards crime than a natural-born citizen. Continued research should be completed to better understand differences among immigrant youth compared to native-born Latino youth.


Taking A Survivor-Based Approach To Anti-Human Trafficking Initiatives In New York: An Educational Advocacy Toolkit, Madison Turunen Nov 2021

Taking A Survivor-Based Approach To Anti-Human Trafficking Initiatives In New York: An Educational Advocacy Toolkit, Madison Turunen

Women’s and Gender Studies

In this toolkit, readers will engage in a concise overview of current human trafficking initiatives in New York and how they can be transformed to better reflect the needs of survivors. Further, definitions will be provided for: human trafficking, survivor-based approach, and trauma-informed approach. This toolkit will also provide advocacy examples and resources for individuals to call for survivor-based initiatives.


The Overrepresentation Of Youth With Disabilities In The Juvenile Justice System, Keidra Mcgriff Nov 2021

The Overrepresentation Of Youth With Disabilities In The Juvenile Justice System, Keidra Mcgriff

Contemporary Issues in Juvenile Justice

This paper discusses the contributing factors and effects of youth[VD(1] with disabilities in the juvenile justice system. The disabilities discussed will be those of social, emotional, learning, and behavioral; presenting disconnections between these children, youth, educational system, and juvenile justice system. [VD(2] The juvenile justice system encompasses youth with behavior attributed to their disability that has been criminalized and thereby labeled as a delinquent. A juvenile delinquent is defined as "a minor who…commits anti-social or criminal acts, like vandalism or violence" (Dictionary.com, 2016). Such behavior could be disorderly conduct or temper tantrums that is criminalized as assault or general …


Severe Emotional And Behavioral Problems: Barriers For Texas Youth Accessing Mental Health Court Programs, Justin Joseph Nov 2021

Severe Emotional And Behavioral Problems: Barriers For Texas Youth Accessing Mental Health Court Programs, Justin Joseph

Contemporary Issues in Juvenile Justice

Conduct disorder is a constellation of continuous emotional and behavioral problems observed in children and adolescents, which may involve violent and non-violent antisocial behaviors. The symptomology of this psychological disorder includes: disregarding rules without clear reason, cruel or aggressive behavior toward people or animals (e.g., bullying, fighting, using dangerous weapons, forcing sexual activity, and stealing), skipping school, excessive substance use, pathological lying, manipulation, running away, and vandalism (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 2013). Texas Juvenile Mental Health Courts are designed to reduce the number of detained youth, divert at-risk children, maintain community safety, and utilize multidisciplinary approaches to treat conduct disordered …


Miami-Dade County Status Offenders: A Literature Review Of Punishment And Rehabilitation Of Youth, Colette B. Harris Nov 2021

Miami-Dade County Status Offenders: A Literature Review Of Punishment And Rehabilitation Of Youth, Colette B. Harris

Contemporary Issues in Juvenile Justice

The number of juveniles in detention centers has decreased across the United States. Although overall incarceration rates of juveniles in Miami-Dade County have declined, the number of youths at risk for delinquent activity and the number of girls in detention centers has increased. In the last nine years, Florida legislators have created laws to eliminate zero-tolerance policies in county schools, lessened the punishment role of law enforcement officers for in-school behaviors, as well as minimized the presence of law enforcement officers on school grounds. Although Miami-Dade County has been a part of the reformation of the Florida juvenile justice system, …


Right Against Self-Incrimination: Revealing The Mental Health History Of Justice-Involved Youth, Sesha Kethineni, Colette B. Harris Nov 2021

Right Against Self-Incrimination: Revealing The Mental Health History Of Justice-Involved Youth, Sesha Kethineni, Colette B. Harris

Contemporary Issues in Juvenile Justice

In the last two decades, the juvenile justice system has focused on the early identification of youth mental health to provide timely assessment and needed treatment. However, there are potential risks in divulging youth mental health status because the information is often made available to juvenile courts and probation departments. Many state statutes allow such information to be used in the admission of guilt, adjudication, and dispositional phases. The study reviewed state and federal statutes related to protections against self-incrimination of youth at eight different stages of the juvenile justice system. A systematic content analysis of secondary sources and legislative …


Ethnic Variations In Levels Of Conventional Bonding Among Different Black Adolescents In The United States: Implications For Behavioral Resilience, Shantol Mcintosh, Sherri Simmons-Horton, Frank Barnes Nov 2021

Ethnic Variations In Levels Of Conventional Bonding Among Different Black Adolescents In The United States: Implications For Behavioral Resilience, Shantol Mcintosh, Sherri Simmons-Horton, Frank Barnes

Contemporary Issues in Juvenile Justice

The quantitative study offers a description of how Caribbean-descended and African American adolescents in a national sample compare on strands of Hirschi’s conventional bond in terms of deviance and justice system involvement. Using a sample of 1,141 adolescents from the National Survey of American Life-Adolescent data, these groups were compared with tests of significance. The results indicate that belief and attachment are the most significant predictors of justice system contact. While Caribbean youth reported more deviance, this was not predictive of more justice system involvement than African Americans. Explanations for these findings and practice implications are offered.


Co-Creating Solution-Focused Conversations In Disagreement, Marcella D. Stark, Rayya Ghul, Marjan Gryson, Brian Jennings, Jonas Wells Nov 2021

Co-Creating Solution-Focused Conversations In Disagreement, Marcella D. Stark, Rayya Ghul, Marjan Gryson, Brian Jennings, Jonas Wells

Journal of Solution Focused Practices

No abstract provided.


Pandora’S Box To Sex Offenders Or Gift To The Public? Reviewing Sex Conviction Record Check In Hong Kong, England And Wales, Tsz Yan Elizabeth Yau Nov 2021

Pandora’S Box To Sex Offenders Or Gift To The Public? Reviewing Sex Conviction Record Check In Hong Kong, England And Wales, Tsz Yan Elizabeth Yau

SOC 605 Comparative Social Policy Research Project - Student Works

Qualitative research and literature review were conducted by interviewing two ex-sex offenders and a police officer in England for reviewing Sexual conviction record check(system) in Hong Kong, England and Wales. The major findings in the research showed the system might bring stress and labelling effect toward the ex-offenders. Many sex offenders might lack information about the system before discharge which might hinder their rehabilitation and reintegration to the society. Moreover, the protection of the system in Hong Kong could not cover some potential situations which might do harm to the victims. Five policy suggestions are made at the end of …


An Exploration Of The Psychological Impact Of Hacking Victimization, Alexa Palassis, Craig P. Speelman, Julie Ann Pooley Nov 2021

An Exploration Of The Psychological Impact Of Hacking Victimization, Alexa Palassis, Craig P. Speelman, Julie Ann Pooley

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Cybercrime has rapidly grown in prevalence and potential for harm and disruption for victims. Studies have examined the adverse psychological impact of cybercrime for victims; however, the specific effects for victims of hacking are unexplored. The present study aimed to investigate the psychological impacts of hacking victimization through exploration of the experience of victims of hacking. The study employed an in-depth phenomenological approach to explore the experiences of 11 victims of hacking. Semi-structured interviews were used as a tool for data collection, and thematic analysis of the data revealed four main themes: emotional impact; an increased sense of vulnerability; a …


On Assessing The Scope Of Missing Native Americans In Nebraska: Results From A State-Wide Study And Recommendations For Future Research: On Assessing The Scope Of Missing Native American Persons: Results From A State-Wide Study And Recommendations For Future Research, Tara N. Richards, Emily M. Wright, Alyssa Nystrom, Sheena Gilbert, Caralin Branscum Oct 2021

On Assessing The Scope Of Missing Native Americans In Nebraska: Results From A State-Wide Study And Recommendations For Future Research: On Assessing The Scope Of Missing Native American Persons: Results From A State-Wide Study And Recommendations For Future Research, Tara N. Richards, Emily M. Wright, Alyssa Nystrom, Sheena Gilbert, Caralin Branscum

Criminology and Criminal Justice Faculty Publications

Recent legislation in multiple states has called for studies on the scope of missing Native American persons. Here we report on one such study from Nebraska by first describing the practical and methodological issues for researchers to consider when examining data on missing Native persons. Then, using data from four point-in-time-counts in 2020, rates of Native American missing persons as well as case contexts over the study period are reported. Findings show that Native Americans are disproportionately represented among Nebraska's missing persons, that reports often involve minor boys, and that cases are dynamic and most are resolved quickly. Relatedly, most …


Demographic Factors As Determinants Of Adolescents’ Help-Seeking Intention For Sexual Exploitation In Tanzania, Budeba Petro Mlyakado, Jessica Chi-Mei Li Oct 2021

Demographic Factors As Determinants Of Adolescents’ Help-Seeking Intention For Sexual Exploitation In Tanzania, Budeba Petro Mlyakado, Jessica Chi-Mei Li

Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences

This study examines the influence of adolescents’ gender, age, locality, and history of sexual victimisation on adolescents’ help-seeking intention for sexual exploitation. It compares how these demographic variables influence adolescents’ intention to seek help from formal sources (teachers, police, doctors/nurses, counsellors/social workers, local government leaders, and religious leaders); informal sources (parents, i.e., father and mother), guardians (uncles, aunts and grandparents); siblings (brothers, sisters or cousins), and friends. In this study, a cross-sectional survey is used to examine responses from a stratified random sample of 1,116 adolescents aged 13-17 years (M = 15.66; SD = 1.09), recruited from rural and urban …


Adverse Childhood Experiences Distinguish Violent Juvenile Sexual Offenders’ Victim Typologies, Michael T. Baglivio, Kevin T. Wolff Oct 2021

Adverse Childhood Experiences Distinguish Violent Juvenile Sexual Offenders’ Victim Typologies, Michael T. Baglivio, Kevin T. Wolff

Publications and Research

Juvenile perpetrators account for over 25% of all sexual offenses, and over one-third of such offenses are against victims under the age of 18. Given empirical connections between adverse childhood experience (ACE) exposure and perpetration of violence, we create victim typologies based on the juveniles’ relationship to their victims among 5539 justice-involved adolescents who have committed violent against-person sexual felonies. Multinomial logistic regression is used to assess which covariates, including individual ACE exposures and cumulative traumatic exposures, are associated with victim typologies. This approach allows for better targeting of violence prevention efforts, as a more nuanced understanding of the increased …


How Are Parental And Sibling Military Service Related To Adolescent Depression And Mental Health Service Use?, Andrew London Oct 2021

How Are Parental And Sibling Military Service Related To Adolescent Depression And Mental Health Service Use?, Andrew London

Population Health Research Brief Series

Having a parent or sibling serving in the military may lead to distress and mental health problems among adolescents. This research brief examines differences in depression and mental health service use among U.S. adolescents ages 12-17, comparing those who have parents or siblings currently serving in the military to those who do not. The study shows that adolescents are more likely to have an older sibling than a parent in the military. Although current parental military service is not associated with major depression among adolescents, having an older sibling in the military is associated with an increased probability of major …


Shooting Trends Vary Across Areas Of New York City, Jeffrey A. Butts, Richard A. Espinobarros Oct 2021

Shooting Trends Vary Across Areas Of New York City, Jeffrey A. Butts, Richard A. Espinobarros

Publications and Research

Recent reports point to slight reductions in New York City’s recent surge of shooting incidents. The number of shooting incidents was higher in 2020 and 2021 than in 2019, but the rate of increase appeared to be slowing. The degree of change varied across areas of the city.


Linguistic Branching Of Semantics In Arabic: A Social Approach, Hanan Ismael Amayreh, Mohammad Ismael Amayreh Oct 2021

Linguistic Branching Of Semantics In Arabic: A Social Approach, Hanan Ismael Amayreh, Mohammad Ismael Amayreh

Al-Balqa Journal for Research and Studies البلقاء للبحوث والدراسات

Linguist Branching is appropriate for Arabic Language as words branch out mostly from roots, and every root becomes a tree, which is different from others, not because of the tree itself, but because of what society uses. Language branching expresses the controversial relationship between the language and the rules that govern it from one side, and society’s preference of certain terms over others from the other side. This study tries to answer the following questions: does the language impose the used words, or does it offer options for society to choose what suits it? The study reaches a conclusion that …


The Reality Of Applying Governance Within The Criteria Of Quality Assurance At Schools Of Sport Science At Jordanian Universities, Sari Ahmad Hamdan, Fatima Marof Al-Khrisat Oct 2021

The Reality Of Applying Governance Within The Criteria Of Quality Assurance At Schools Of Sport Science At Jordanian Universities, Sari Ahmad Hamdan, Fatima Marof Al-Khrisat

Al-Balqa Journal for Research and Studies البلقاء للبحوث والدراسات

This study examines the reality of applying governance within The Criteria of Quality Assurance at schools of Sport Science at Jordanian Universities from their members perspective. It also aims at finding out the differences in the schools' members perspective. The sample of the study consisted of (86) school members who work in (University of Jordan, Yarmouk University, Mu'tah University, Hashemite University, and Al-Ahliyya Amman University). To achieve the objectives of the study, the Descriptive approach was used. The results showed that the reality of applying governance came to a high degree, and they were statistically significant in the perspective of …


The Image Of The Andalusian Woman In Love And Adored In The Muwashahat Of The Sixth Century Ah In Andalusia, Ali Mosa A-Masha’Leh, Nawal Abd Rahman Al-Shawabkeh Oct 2021

The Image Of The Andalusian Woman In Love And Adored In The Muwashahat Of The Sixth Century Ah In Andalusia, Ali Mosa A-Masha’Leh, Nawal Abd Rahman Al-Shawabkeh

Al-Balqa Journal for Research and Studies البلقاء للبحوث والدراسات

This research aims at exploring the image of the Andalusian woman in love and adored in the sixth hijri century of Andalusia. It explores the real image of women through Andalusian muwashahat and books of literature, translations and others. This research displays the image of the beloved woman and her relationship with her mother where washaheen discuss her beauty. As for the beloved woman, washaheen believe that she has the right to flirt with men, so she was given the chance to express herself using the last section of muwashat. The woman searches for her lover, so she goes to …


The Degree To Which The Use Of Modern Educational Technologies On The Quality Of Education And Its Development In Al-Ahliyya Amman University From The Viewpoint Of Faculty Members, Sawsan Badrakhan, Hafizah Muhammad Mahmoud, Feda Ghnaim, Suleiman Alnaimi Oct 2021

The Degree To Which The Use Of Modern Educational Technologies On The Quality Of Education And Its Development In Al-Ahliyya Amman University From The Viewpoint Of Faculty Members, Sawsan Badrakhan, Hafizah Muhammad Mahmoud, Feda Ghnaim, Suleiman Alnaimi

Al-Balqa Journal for Research and Studies البلقاء للبحوث والدراسات

The study aims at identifying the degree to which the use of modern educational technologies on the quality of education and its development in al-ahliyya Amman university from the viewpoint of faculty members by developing a questionnaire consisting of (20) items which were distributed to a random sample consisting of (198) faculty members. The results of the study showed that the most important modern technologies used in university education are: first, information network (the Internet) with a rate of (18.70%), and second, social networking sites, with a rate of (15.9%). The degree of impact of the use of modern technologies …


The Obstacles Faced By The Middle School Leaders Who Apply The Initiative Of Transition Towards Digital Learning, Amal Ibrahim Aldhafar Oct 2021

The Obstacles Faced By The Middle School Leaders Who Apply The Initiative Of Transition Towards Digital Learning, Amal Ibrahim Aldhafar

Al-Balqa Journal for Research and Studies البلقاء للبحوث والدراسات

This study aims at identifying the obstacles faced by the middle school leaders when they apply The Initiative of Transition Towards Digital Learning as well as determining the degree of responses of middle school leaders to these obstacles according to variables such as; (years of experience and school size). In order to achieve the objectives of this study, the descriptive method and the questionnaire method were used. The above methods were applied and distributed amongst the (25) school leaders who applied The Initiative of Transition Towards Digital Learning. The study concluded that obstacles of the application of middle school leaders …


Type D Personality, And The Levels Of Anxiety And Depression In A Sample Of Cardiac Patients In Comparison To Their Non-Patient Counterparts, Fatma Faris Najjar, Wisam Breik Oct 2021

Type D Personality, And The Levels Of Anxiety And Depression In A Sample Of Cardiac Patients In Comparison To Their Non-Patient Counterparts, Fatma Faris Najjar, Wisam Breik

Al-Balqa Journal for Research and Studies البلقاء للبحوث والدراسات

The present study aims at exploring the prevalence of type D personality (distressed personality) and the levels of anxiety (trait) and depression in a sample of cardiac patients in comparison to their non-patient counterparts in Jordan. To achieve the objectives of the study, an adapted form of type D personality scale-DS14, Trait Anxiety Scale and Beck Inventory were utilized. The study sample consisted of 309 individuals; 306 of which cardiac patients (73 males and 83 females) whose illness is not due to congenital causes and 153 non-patients (83 males and 70 females) as a comparative group, who were chosen from …


Textual Consistency Mechanisms In The Poem "Lost Nostalgia" By Abu Alqasim Alshabbi, Esa Slah Al Tarawneh Oct 2021

Textual Consistency Mechanisms In The Poem "Lost Nostalgia" By Abu Alqasim Alshabbi, Esa Slah Al Tarawneh

Al-Balqa Journal for Research and Studies البلقاء للبحوث والدراسات

The research addresses a significant topic related to (Text Linguistics) based on analyzing poetry speech textuality. The research tracks a textual occurrence as the base of assessing the text quality, which is "Textual Consistency”. The research will study the Textual Consistency mechanism in Abu Alqasim Alshabbi's poem, "Alashwaq Altae'ha", unfolding the consistency of its phonetics, vocabularies, and structural contents, highlighting the significant role of these mechanisms on this outstanding text in maintaining its unity, coherence and cohesion. The research adopted the Descriptive approach, using literary analysis. Key words: Textual Linguistics, Text, Consistency, Abu Alqasim Alshabbi, "Alashwaq Altae'ha”.


The Doctrine Of Functus Officio And Its Exceptions Under The Arbitration Law Of Jordan, Mosleh Ahmad Al Tarawneh, Jalal Mahmoud Al-Qhaiwi Oct 2021

The Doctrine Of Functus Officio And Its Exceptions Under The Arbitration Law Of Jordan, Mosleh Ahmad Al Tarawneh, Jalal Mahmoud Al-Qhaiwi

Al-Balqa Journal for Research and Studies البلقاء للبحوث والدراسات

This study examines the doctrine of Functus Officio and its exceptions under the Jordanian Arbitration Law and its relation with the doctrine of res judicata. We will first shed the light on on the doctrine and the awards to which it apply. Then, we will examine the exceptions of the doctrine that alleviate the potential harshness of the doctrine. These exceptions are: correction of clerical error in the award, interpretation of ambiguities or obscurities in the text of the award and supplementation or the issuance of an additional award on matters or claims presented in the arbitral proceedings but omitted …


Using Google Alerts To Study Police Crime, Chloe Wentzlof, Philip M. Stinson, John Liederbach Oct 2021

Using Google Alerts To Study Police Crime, Chloe Wentzlof, Philip M. Stinson, John Liederbach

Criminal Justice Faculty Publications

Presentation from the annual meeting of the Criminology Consortium on October 18, 2021.


Virtual Photovoice: Methodological Lessons And Cautions, Meagan Call-Cummings, Melissa Hauber-Özer Oct 2021

Virtual Photovoice: Methodological Lessons And Cautions, Meagan Call-Cummings, Melissa Hauber-Özer

The Qualitative Report

Photovoice is a type of participatory inquiry, which is a methodological and onto-epistemological stance that seeks to emancipate marginalized individuals, confront inequity, and work for social transformation. Photovoice incorporates Paulo Freire’s problem-posing education, documentary photography techniques, and feminist thought as an approach for community members to identify shared concerns and construct collective knowledge. It also seeks to challenge unequal power relations by disrupting hegemonic structures in the production of knowledge and policy, as photographs and accompanying descriptions can communicate powerfully about community needs and demands for change. University-based researchers or practitioners facilitate this communication by bringing community perspectives to the …


Returning Home: A Descriptive Evaluation Of Prepare In New York City, Kathleen A. Tomberg, Gina Moreno, Patricia A. Cobar, Nicole Alexander Oct 2021

Returning Home: A Descriptive Evaluation Of Prepare In New York City, Kathleen A. Tomberg, Gina Moreno, Patricia A. Cobar, Nicole Alexander

Publications and Research

The Research and Evaluation Center at John Jay College of Criminal Justice partnered with the Osborne Association as the local evaluator of the Prepare program. Researchers conducted an evaluation consisting of an outcome analysis of administrative and survey data supplemented with data collected from interviews, focus groups, and observations with program participants and staff. Findings suggest Prepare was successful in helping individuals reconnect with their families and in finding a job. Participants reported that obtaining and maintaining employment improved their ability to have a relationship with their children and families, and improvements in family related scales correlated with job placement.


Dossier: The Stateless Rohingya—Practical Consequences Of Expulsion, Fiza Lee-Winter, Tonny Kirabira Oct 2021

Dossier: The Stateless Rohingya—Practical Consequences Of Expulsion, Fiza Lee-Winter, Tonny Kirabira

Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal

The international community has been called upon to ramp up efforts to end statelessness and provided with a guiding framework of 10 Actions. This dossier presents the practical consequences of expulsion, both direct and indirect outcomes of collective violence, directed towards the Rohingyas. Touching upon the nexus between children's rights, human trafficking, and practical challenges associated on-the-ground, the dossier also discusses the imperative need for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) states—collectively as a region—to take steps in fulfilling Action 7 of the Global Action Plan through the birth registration of Rohingya children as part of their existing efforts …


Judicial Involvement In Plea-Bargaining, Kelsey S. Henderson, Erika N. Fountain, Allison D. Redlich, Jason A. Cantone Oct 2021

Judicial Involvement In Plea-Bargaining, Kelsey S. Henderson, Erika N. Fountain, Allison D. Redlich, Jason A. Cantone

Criminology and Criminal Justice Faculty Publications and Presentations

The topic of judicial involvement in plea negotiations is a controversial issue, with potential benefits (e.g., ensuring that the process is fairer) and risks (e.g., inducing an innocent defendant to plead guilty). Currently, 20 jurisdictions explicitly prohibit judicial involvement in plea negotiations, whereas eight permit some type of involvement. We surveyed state court judges about judicial involvement in plea bargaining (colloquy and negotiations) and their perceptions on judicial participation. We expected judges in states that prohibit judicial involvement in negotiations to have a more negative view of judicial participation compared with judges in states that permit involvement or those in …


The Effect Of Respondent Race And Sex On Police Use Or Threatened Use Of Force, Viola L. Sawyer Oct 2021

The Effect Of Respondent Race And Sex On Police Use Or Threatened Use Of Force, Viola L. Sawyer

The Hilltop Review

This study examines the interacting effects of race and sex on police use of force. Survey data drawn from the Police-Public Contact Survey were used to conduct a binary logistic regression to assess effects of different configurations of self-reported race and sex identities, respondents age, and absence of deference to authority on self-reported police use or threatened use of force in interactions with police officers. Results indicate that the multiplicative effect of respondents’ race and sex overall, had a statistically significant relationship with the likelihood of reporting police use or threatened use of force in police-public contacts. Additionally, age, overall, …