Digital Commons Network^™

Interfacial Reactivity Of Radionuclides: Emerging Paradigms From Molecular-Level Observations, A.R. Felmy, E.S. Ilton, K.M. Rosso, John M. Zachara

United States Department of Energy: Publications

Over the past few decades an increasing array of molecular-level analytical probes has provided new detailed insight into mineral and radionuclide interfacial reactivity in subsurface environments. This capability has not only helped change the way mineral surface reactivity is studied but also how field scale contaminant migration problems are addressed and ultimately resolved. Here we review relatively new interfacial reactivity paradigms and assess their implications for future research directions. Specific examples include understanding the following: the role of site-to-site electron conduction at mineral surfaces and through bulk mineral phases and the effects of local chemical environment on the stability of …

Structure Of A Bacterial Cell Surface Decaheme Electron Conduit, Thomas A. Clarke, Marcus Edwards, Andrew J. Gates, Andrea Hall, Gaye F. White, Justin Bradley, Catherine L. Reardon, Liang Shi, Alexander Beliaev, Matthew Marshall, Zheming Wang, Nicholas Watmough, James K. Fredrickson, John M. Zachara, Julea Butt, David J. Richardson

United States Department of Energy: Publications

Some bacterial species are able to utilize extracellular mineral forms of iron and manganese as respiratory electron acceptors. In Shewanella oneidensis this involves decaheme cytochromes that are located on the bacterial cell surface at the termini of transouter- membrane electron transfer conduits. The cell surface cytochromes can potentially play multiple roles in mediating electron transfer directly to insoluble electron sinks, catalyzing electron exchange with flavin electron shuttles or participating in extracellular intercytochrome electron exchange along “nanowire” appendages. We present a 3.2-Å crystal structure of one of these decaheme cytochromes, MtrF, that allows the spatial organization of the 10 hemes to …

Sop For Pathway Inference In Integrated Microbial Genomes (Img), Iain Anderson, Amy Chen, Victor Markowitz, Nikos Kyrpides, Natalia Ivanova

United States Department of Energy: Publications

One of the most important aspects of genomic analysis is the prediction of which pathways, both metabolic and non-metabolic, are present in an organism. In IMG, this is carried out by the assignment of IMG terms, which are organized into IMG pathways. Based on manual and automatic assignment of IMG terms, the presence or absence of IMG pathways is automatically inferred. The three categories of pathway assertion are asserted (likely present), not asserted (likely absent), and unknown. In the unknown category, at least one term necessary for the pathway is missing, but an ortholog in another organism has the corresponding …

Complete Genome Sequence Of The Cellulolytic Thermophile Clostridium Thermocellum Dsm1313, Lawrence Feinberg, Justine Foden, Trisha Barrett, Karen Walston Davenport, David Bruce, Chris Detter, Roxanne Tapia, Cliff Han, Alla Lapidus, Susan Lucas, Jan-Fang Cheng, Samuel Pitluck, Tanja Woyke, Natalia Ivanova, Natalia Mikhailova, Miriam Land, Loren Hauser, D. Aaron Argyros, Lynne Goodwin, David Hogsett, Nicky Caiazza

United States Department of Energy: Publications

Clostridium thermocellum DSM1313 is a thermophilic, anaerobic bacterium with some of the highest rates of cellulose hydrolysis reported. The complete genome sequence reveals a suite of carbohydrate-active enzymes and demonstrates a level of diversity at the species level distinguishing it from the type strain ATCC 27405.

Img/M: The Integrated Metagenome Data Management And Comparative Analysis System, Victor M. Markowitz, I-Min A. Chen, Ken Chu, Ernest Szeto, Krishna Palaniappan, Yuri Grechkin, Anna Ratner, Biju Jacob, Amrita Pati, Marcel Huntemann, Konstantinos Liolios, Ioanna Pagani, Iain Anderson, Konstantinos Mavromatis, Natalia N. Ivanova, Nikos C. Kyrpides

United States Department of Energy: Publications

The integrated microbial genomes and metagenomes (IMG/M) system provides support for comparative analysis of microbial community aggregate genomes (metagenomes) in a comprehensive integrated context. IMG/M integrates metagenome data sets with isolate microbial genomes from the IMG system. IMG/M’s data content and analytical capabilities have been extended through regular updates since its first release in 2007. IMG/M is available at http://img.jgi.doe.gov/m. A companion IMG/M systems provide support for annotation and expert review of unpublished metagenomic data sets (IMG/M ER: http://img.jgi.doe.gov/mer).

Vista Region Viewer (Rviewer)—A Computational System For Prioritizing Genomic Intervals For Biomedical Studies, Igor Lukashin, Pavel Novichkov, Dario Boffelli, Alex R. Paciorkowski, Simon Minovitsky, Song Yang, Inna Dubchak

United States Department of Energy: Publications

Summary:
Current genome browsers are designed for linear browsing of individual genomic regions, but the high-throughput nature of experiments aiming to elucidate the genetic component of human disease makes it very important to develop user-friendly tools for comparing several genomic regions in parallel and prioritizing them based on their functional content. We introduce VISTA Region Viewer (RViewer), an interactive online tool that allows for efficient screening and prioritization of regions of the human genome for follow-up studies. The tool takes as input genetic variation data from different biomedical studies, determines a number of various functional parameters for both coding …

Complete Genome Sequence Of The Plant Growth-Promoting Endophyte Burkholderia Phytofirmans Strain Psjn, Alexandra Weilharter, Birgit Mitter, Maria V. Shin, Patrick S. G. Chain, Jerzy Nowak, Angela Sessitsch

United States Department of Energy: Publications

Burkholderia phytofirmans PsJN^T is able to efficiently colonize the rhizosphere, root, and above-ground plant tissues of a wide variety of genetically unrelated plants, such as potatoes, canola, maize, and grapevines. Strain PsJN shows strong plant growth-promoting effects and was reported to enhance plant vigor and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Here, we report the genome sequence of this strain, which indicates the presence of multiple traits relevant for endophytic colonization and plant growth promotion.

Transient Groundwater Chemistry Near A River: Effects On U(Vi) Transport In Laboratory Column Experiments, Jun Yin, Roy Haggerty, Deborah L. Stoliker, Douglas B. Kent, Jonathan D. Istok, Janek Greskowiak, John M. Zachara

United States Department of Energy: Publications

In the 300 Area of a U(VI)-contaminated aquifer at Hanford, Washington, USA, inorganic carbon and major cations, which have large impacts on U(VI) transport, change on an hourly and seasonal basis near the Columbia River. Batch and column experiments were conducted to investigate the factors controlling U(VI) adsorption/desorption by changing chemical conditions over time. Low alkalinity and low Ca concentrations (Columbia River water) enhanced adsorption and reduced aqueous concentrations. Conversely, high alkalinity and high Ca concentrations (Hanford groundwater) reduced adsorption and increased aqueous concentrations of U(VI). An equilibrium surface complexation model calibrated using laboratory batch experiments accounted for the decrease …

Simulating Adsorption Of U(Vi) Under Transient Groundwater Flow And Hydrochemistry: Physical Versus Chemical Nonequilibrium Model, Janek Greskowiak, Michael Hay, Henning Prommer, Chongxuan Liu, Vincent Post, Rui Ma, James Davis, Chunmiao Zheng, John M. Zachara

United States Department of Energy: Publications

Coupled intragrain diffusional mass transfer and nonlinear surface complexation processes play an important role in the transport behavior of U(VI) in contaminated aquifers. Two alternative model approaches for simulating these coupled processes were analyzed and compared: (1) the physical nonequilibrium approach that explicitly accounts for aqueous speciation and instantaneous surface complexation reactions in the intragrain regions and approximates the diffusive mass exchange between the immobile intragrain pore water and the advective pore water as multirate first-order mass transfer and (2) the chemical nonequilibrium approach that approximates the diffusion-limited intragrain surface complexation reactions by a set of multiple first-order surface complexation …

Transition Of Cellulose Crystalline Structure And Surface Morphology Of Biomass As A Function Of Ionic Liquid Pretreatment And Its Relation To Enzymatic Hydrolysis, Gang Cheng, Patanjali Varanasi, Chenlin Li, Hanbin Liu, Yuri B. Melnichenko, Blake A. Simmons, Michael S. Kent, Seema Singh

United States Department of Energy: Publications

Cellulose is inherently resistant to breakdown, and the native crystalline structure (cellulose I) of cellulose is considered to be one of themajor factors limiting its potential in terms of cost-competitive lignocellulosic biofuel production. Here we report the impact of ionic liquid pretreatment on the cellulose crystalline structure in different feedstocks, including microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), pine (Pinus radiata), and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), and its influence on cellulose hydrolysis kinetics of the resultant biomass. These feedstocks were pretreated using 1-ethyl-3-methyl imidazolium acetate ([C2mim][OAc]) at 120 and 160°C for 1, 3, 6, and 12 …

Modification Of Native Grasses For Biofuel Production May Increase Virus Susceptibility, Abbie C. Schrotenboer, Michael S. Allen, Carolyn M. Malmstrom

United States Department of Energy: Publications

Bioenergy production is driving modifications to native plant species for use as novel biofuel crops. Key aims are to increase crop growth rates and to enhance conversion efficiency by reducing biomass recalcitrance to digestion. However, selection for these biofuel-valuable traits has potential to compromise plant defenses and alter interactions with pests and pathogens. Insect-vectored plant viruses are of particular concern because perennial crops have potential to serve as virus reservoirs that influence regional disease dynamics. In this study, we examined relationships between growth rates and biomass recalcitrance in five switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) populations, ranging from near wild type …

Ecosystem Services Altered By Human Changes In The Nitrogen Cycle: A New Perspective For Us Decision Making, Jana E. Compton, John A. Harrison, Robin L. Dennis, Tara L. Greaver, Brian H. Hill, Stephen J. Jordan, Henry Walker, Holly V. Campbell

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Human alteration of the nitrogen (N) cycle has produced benefits for health and well-being, but excess N has altered many ecosystems and degraded air and water quality. US regulations mandate protection of the environment in terms that directly connect to ecosystem services. Here, we review the science quantifying effects of N on key ecosystem services, and compare the costs of N-related impacts or mitigation using the metric of cost per unit of N. Damage costs to the provision of clean air, reflected by impaired human respiratory health, are well characterized and fairly high (e.g. costs of ozone and particulate damages …

Toxicity And Recovery In The Pregnant Mouse After Gestational Exposure To The Cyanobacterial Toxin, Cylindrospermopsin, N. Chernoff, E. H. Rogers, R. D. Zehr, M. I. Gage, D. E. Malarkey, C. A. Bradfield, Y. Liu, J. E. Schmid, R. H. Jaskot, J. H. Richards, C. R. Wood, M. B. Rosen

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is a tricyclic alkaloid toxin produced by fresh water cyanobacterial species worldwide. CYN has been responsible for both livestock and human poisoning after oral exposure. This study investigated the toxicity of CYN to pregnant mice exposed during different segments of gestation. The course of recovery and individual responses to the toxin were evaluated. Adverse effects of CYN were monitored up to 7 weeks post-dosing by clinical examination, histopathology, biochemistry and gene expression. Exposure on gestational days (GD) 8–12 induced significantly more lethality than GD13–17 exposure. Periorbital, gastrointestinal and distal tail hemorrhages were seen in both groups. Serum markers …

Maternal Influences On Epigenetic Programming Of The Developing Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis, Curtis E. Grace, Sung-Je Kim, John M. Rogers

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Parental and environmental factors during the prenatal and postnatal periods permanently affect the physiology and metabolism of offspring, potentially increasing disease risk later in life. Underlying mechanisms are being elucidated, and effects on a number of organs and metabolic pathways are likely involved. In this review, we consider effects on the developing hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which may represent a common pathway for developmental programming. The focus is on prenatal and early postnatal development, during which the HPA axis may be programmed in a manner that affects health for a lifetime. Programming of the HPA axis involves, at least in part, …

Current And Future Needs For Developmental Toxicity Testing, Susan L. Makris, James H. Kim, Amy Ellis, Willem Faber, Wafa Harrouk, Joseph M. Lewis, Merle G. Paule, Jennifer Seed, Melissa Tassinari, Rochelle Tyl

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

A review is presented of the use of developmental toxicity testing in the United States and international regulatory assessment of human health risks associated with exposures to pharmaceuticals (human and veterinary), chemicals (agricultural, industrial, and environmental), food additives, cosmetics, and consumer products. Developmental toxicology data are used for prioritization and screening of pharmaceuticals and chemicals, for evaluating and labeling of pharmaceuticals, and for characterizing hazards and risk of exposures to industrial and environmental chemicals. The in vivo study designs utilized in hazard characterization and dose-response assessment for developmental outcomes have not changed substantially over the past 30 years and have …

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Activation During Pregnancy, And In Adult Nulliparous Mice, Delays The Subsequent Development Of Dmba-Induced Mammary Tumors, Tao Wang, Heather M. Gavin, Volker M. Arlt, B. Paige Lawrence, Suzanne E. Fenton, Daniel Medina, Beth A. Vorderstrasse

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), the prototypic ligand for the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), promotes tumor formation in some model systems. However, with regard to breast cancer, epidemiological and animal studies are inconclusive as to whether exposure increases tumor incidence or may instead be protective. We have previously reported that mice exposed to TCDD during pregnancy have impaired differentiation of mammary tissue, including decreased branching and poor development of lobuloalveolar structures. Because normal pregnancy-induced mammary differentiation may protect against subsequent neoplastic transformation, we hypothesized that TCDD-treated mice would be more susceptible to chemical carcinogenesis after parturition. To test this, mice were …

Evolution Of Natural History Information In The 21st Century – Developing An Integrated Framework For Biological And Geographical Data, Deborah A. Reusser, Henry Lee Ii

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Threats to marine and estuarine species operate over many spatial scales, from nutrient enrichment at the watershed/estuarine scale to invasive species and climate change at regional and global scales. To help address research questions across these scales, we provide here a standardized framework for a biogeographical information system containing queriable biological data that allows extraction of information on multiple species, across a variety of spatial scales based on species distributions, natural history attributes and habitat requirements. As scientists shift from research on localized impacts on individual species to regional and global scale threats, macroecological approaches of studying multiple species over …

Effects Of Biologically-Active Chemical Mixtures On Fish In A Wastewater-Impacted Urban Stream, Larry B. Barber, Gregory K. Brown, Todd G. Nettesheim, Elizabeth W. Murphy, Stephen E. Bartell, Heiko L. Schoenfuss

United States Environmental Protection Agency: Publications

Stream flow in urban aquatic ecosystems often is maintained by water-reclamation plant (WRP) effluents that contain mixtures of natural and anthropogenic chemicals that persist through the treatment processes. In effluent-impacted streams, aquatic organisms such as fish are continuously exposed to biologically-active chemicals throughout their life cycles. The North Shore Channel of the Chicago River (Chicago, Illinois) is part of an urban ecosystem in which >80% of the annual flow consists of effluent from the North Side WRP. In this study, multiple samplings of the effluent and stream water were conducted and fish (largemouth bass and carp) were collected on 2 …

Test 1999: John Deere 8335rt, Nebraska Tractor Test Lab

Nebraska Tractor Tests

ABOUT THE TEST REPORT AND USE OF THE DATA The test data contained in this report are a tabulation of the results of a series of tests. Due to the restricted format of these pages, only a limited amount of data and not all of the tractor specifications are included. The full OECD report contains usually about 30 pages of data and specifications. The test data were obtained for each tractor under similar conditions and therefore, provide a means of comparison of performance based on a limited set of reported data. EXPLANATION OF THE TEST PROCEDURES Purpose The purpose of …

2011 Nebraska Water Monitoring Programs Report, Marty Link

Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality: Reports

The Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality (NDEQ) is charged with monitoring, assessing, and to the extent possible, managing the state’s water resources. The purpose of this work is to protect and maintain good quality water and encourage or execute activities to improve poor water quality. Monitoring is done on the over 18,000 miles of flowing rivers and streams, our greater than 280,000 acres of surface water in lakes and reservoirs, and the vast storage of groundwater in Nebraska’s aquifers.

Ann-Based Adaptive Pi Control For Wind Turbine With Doubly Fed Induction Generator, Baohua Dong, Sohrab Asgarpoor, Wei Qiao

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Faculty Publications

This paper focuses on developing a novel algorithm which dynamically optimizes the controllers of doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) driven by a wind turbine (WT) to increase DFIG transient performance in all wind speed conditions. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is proposed to optimize parameters of PI controllers of DFIG’s rotor side/grid side converters (RSC/GSC) at different wind speeds in order to maximize the damping ratios of the system eigenvalues in small signal stability analysis. Based on the optimal values and the wind speed data set, an artificial neural network (ANN) is designed, trained, and it has the ability to quickly …

Raiphy: Phylogenetic Classification Of Metagenomics Samples Using Iterative Refinement Of Relative Abundance Index Profiles, Ozkan U. Nalbantoglu, Samuel F. Way, Steven H. Hinrichs, Khalid Sayood

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Faculty Publications

Background: Computational analysis of metagenomes requires the taxonomical assignment of the genome contigs assembled from DNA reads of environmental samples. Because of the diverse nature of microbiomes, the length of the assemblies obtained can vary between a few hundred bp to a few hundred Kbp. Current taxonomic classification algorithms provide accurate classification for long contigs or for short fragments from organisms that have close relatives with annotated genomes. These are significant limitations for metagenome analysis because of the complexity of microbiomes and the paucity of existing annotated genomes.

Results: We propose a robust taxonomic classification method, RAIphy, that …

Classification Of Military Ground Vehicles Using Time Domain Harmonics’ Amplitudes, Peter E. William, Michael W. Hoffman

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Faculty Publications

In the context of the United Nations peacekeeping operations, we developed an energy-efficient method for the detection and classification of military vehicles using a group of wireless sensors. The method is adequate for low-power unattended sensors which perform sensing, feature extraction, and classification in a standalone scenario. Harmonics’ amplitudes approximating the harmonic signature of the time domain acoustic signal captured by wireless sensor nodes are estimated for vehicle discrimination. The computational complexity for the time domain features extracted from ground vehicles’ acoustic signals is lower than their equivalent spectral features. Classification is performed using a multilayer feed forward neural network, …

Small Molecule Inhibitors Of Staphylococcus Aureus Rnpa Alter Cellular Mrna Turnover, Exhibit Antimicrobial Activity, And Attenuate Pathogenesis, Patrick D. Olson, Lisa J. Kuechenmeister, Kelsi L. Anderson, Sonja Daily, Karen E. Beenken, Christelle M. Roux, Michelle L. Reniere, Tami L. Lewis, William J, Weiss, Mark Pulse, Phung Nguyen, Jerry W. Simecka, John M. Morrison, Khalid Sayood, Oluwatoyin A. Asojo, Mark S. Smeltzer, Eric P. Skaar, Paul M. Dunman

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Faculty Publications

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is estimated to cause more U.S. deaths annually than HIV/AIDS. The emergence of hypervirulent and multidrug-resistant strains has further amplified public health concern and accentuated the need for new classes of antibiotics. RNA degradation is a required cellular process that could be exploited for novel antimicrobial drug development. However, such discovery efforts have been hindered because components of the Gram-positive RNA turnover machinery are incompletely defined. In the current study we found that the essential S. aureus protein, RnpA, catalyzes rRNA and mRNA digestion in vitro. Exploiting this activity, high through-put and secondary screening assays identified …

Impact Of Porogens On The Pore Characteristics Of Zirconia Particles Made By Polymer-Induced Colloid Aggregation, Abhinandan Pattanayak, Anuradha Subramanian

Anuradha Subramanian Publications

Zirconia particles were prepared from a 20% colloidal sol (ZrO₂) by the polymer-induced colloid aggregation (PICA) process, both in the presence and absence of porogens. Specifically, porous zirconia particles having varying porosity were prepared by a two-step protocol wherein a porogen was first embedded during the particle synthesis, followed by its removal in a subsequent step. In this research study, the ability of four different types of porogens, viz. fumed silica, micronized high molecular weight polyethylene emulsion ME09730, and microcrystalline waxes ME48040M2 and ME98040M1, to impact the pore size, porosity, and pore area were investigated. Particle morphology and …

Digital Holographic Imaging Of Aerosol Particles In Flight, Matthew J. Berg, Gorden Videen

United States Army: Publications

This work describes the design and application of an apparatus to image aerosol
particles using digital holography in a flow-through, contact-free manner. Particles in an aerosol stream are illuminated by a triggered, pulsed laser and the pattern produced by the interference of this light with that scattered by the particles is recorded by a digital camera. The recorded pattern constitutes a digital hologram from which an image of the particles is computationally reconstructed using a fast Fourier transform. This imaging is validated using a cluster of ragweed pollen particles. Examples involving mineral-dust aerosols demonstrate the technique’s in situ imaging capability …

Application Of Hyperspectral Vegetation Indices To Detect Variations In High Leaf Area Index Temperate Shrub Thicket Canopies, Steven T. Brantley, Julie C. Zinnert, Donald R. Young

United States Army: Publications

Accurate measurement of leaf area index (LAI), an important characteristic of plant canopies directly linked to primary production, is essential for monitoring changes in ecosystem C stocks and other ecosystem level fluxes. Direct measurement of LAI is labor intensive, impractical at large scales and does not capture seasonal or annual variations in canopy biomass. The need to monitor canopy related fluxes across landscapes makes remote sensing an attractive technique for estimating LAI. Many vegetation indices, such as Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), tend to saturate at LAI levels >4 although tropical and temperate forested ecosystems often exceed that threshold. Using …

Purification Of A Recombinant Heavy Chain Fragment C Vaccine Candidate Against Botulinum Serotype C Neurotoxin [Rbontc(HC)] Expressed In Pichia Pastoris, Michael P. Dux, Jicai Huang, Rick Barent, Mehmet Inan, S. Todd Swanson, Jayanta Sinha, John T. Ross, Leonard A. Smith, Theresa J. Smith, Ian Henderson, Michael M. Meagher

United States Army: Publications

A purification process for the manufacture of a recombinant C-terminus heavy chain fragment from botulinum neurotoxin serotype C [rBoNTC(H_c)], a potential vaccine candidate, has been defined and successfully scaled-up. The rBoNTC(H_c) was produced intracellularly in Pichia pastoris X-33 using a three step fermentation process, i.e., glycerol batch phase, a glycerol fed-batch phase to achieve high cell densities, followed by a methanol induction phase. The rBoNTC(H_c) was captured from the soluble protein fraction of cell lysate using hydrophobic charge induction chromatography (HCIC; MEP HyperCel™), and then further purified using a CM 650M ion exchange chromatography …

Pwisegen: Generating Test Cases For Pairwise Testing Using Genetic Algorithms, Pedro Flores, Yoonsik Cheon

Departmental Technical Reports (CS)

Pairwise testing is a combinatorial testing technique that tests all possible pairs of input values. Although, finding a smallest set of test cases for pairwise testing is NP-complete, pairwise testing is regarded as a reasonable cost-benefit compromise among combinatorial testing methods. In this paper we formulate the problem of finding a pairwise test set as a search problem and apply a genetic algorithm to solve it. We also describe an open-source tool called PWiseGen for generating pairwise test sets. According to our experiments, PWiseGen produces competitive results compared with existing pairwise testing tools. Besides, it provides a framework and a …

Dynamic Response Of Brain Subjected To Blast Loadings: Influence Of Frequency Ranges, Mehdi S. Chafi, Shailesh G. Ganpule, Linxia Gu, Namas Chandra

Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering: Faculty Publications

Blast wave induced a frequency spectrum and large deformation of the brain tissue. In this study, new material parameters for the brain material are determined from the experimental data pertaining to these large strain amplitudes and wide frequencies ranging (from 0.01 Hz to 10 MHz) using genetic algorithms. Both hyperelastic and viscoelastic behavior of the brain are implemented into 2D finite element models and the dynamic responses of brain are evaluated. The head, composed of triple layers of the skull, including two cortical layers and a middle dipole sponge-like layer, the dura, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), the pia mater and the …