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Placing The Evolutionary History Of Desmognathus Salamanders In Context: A Phylogeographic Approach, Kara Jones

Theses and Dissertations--Biology

Patterns of genetic variation do not arise in a vacuum but are instead shaped by the interplay between evolutionary forces and ecological constraints. Here, I use a phylogeographic approach to examine the role that ecology played in lineage divergence in the Desmognathus quadramaculatus species complex (Family: Plethodontidae), which consists of three nominal species: D. quadramaculatus, D. marmoratus, and D. folkertsi. Previous phylogenetic studies have shown that individuals from these species do not form clades based on phenotype. My approach to reconciling phylogenetic discordance was two-fold, using (1) genome-wide markers to provide insight into the …

Context-Dependency And Sex-Specificity Of Dispersal Syndromes, Allyssa Kilanowski

Theses and Dissertations--Biology

For populations in landscapes with increasingly heterogeneous and fragmented habitat patches (e.g., metapopulations), dispersal is an important behavior that leads to gene flow and connectivity among isolated patches. Because dispersal is a complex process, there are many traits involved. When suites of morphological, behavioral, physiological, and life-history traits covary with dispersal (e.g., a dispersal syndrome), the correlated traits can assist dispersing individuals through the complex process. Furthermore, once dispersal is completed, the correlated traits can influence the fitness of those dispersed individuals. Dispersal syndromes will likely interact with the local environment to produce ecological and evolutionary feedbacks on the metapopulation. …

Parental Effects On Offspring Reaction Norms: Consequences For Complex Phenotypes In Variable Environments, Alexandra G. Cones

Theses and Dissertations--Biology

Organismal traits all exhibit some degree of environmental sensitivity, and both the strength and direction of these phenotypically plastic responses to the environment can evolve in adaptive ways. For example, parents can use information about their own environment to precondition the traits of their offspring so that they thrive in their future environment. This transgenerational plasticity can also alter the plasticity of offspring, but explicit investigations of this specific phenomenon are rare. I begin with a review of the literature and provide a quantitative genetic framework to investigate this phenomenon, which I then explore empirically using avian embryos. The metabolic …

Multilevel Phenotypic Integration Of Metabolism And Behavior In House Sparrows And Mice, Tim Salzman

Theses and Dissertations--Biology

Patterns of multilevel variation in behavior, both within and among individuals, raise challenging questions about underlying mechanisms and the selective pressures acting on them. One intriguing hypothesis is that physiology shows parallel multilevel variation, and so might represent a latent trait that integrates multilevel behavioral responses. For example, foraging acquires the fuel needed to maintain metabolism, and in turn, an individual’s metabolism affects expression of foraging, and other, behaviors. Metabolism and behavior thus might coevolve to become integrated traits. Despite the appeal of this hypothesis, numerous investigations into the link between metabolism and behavior have yielded largely equivocal results.

To …

Predicting Mountain Lion Resource Selection And Abundance In North America, William Connor O'Malley

Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers

The relationship between habitat quality and density is well documented in lower trophic levels but to what extent it can be extended to higher trophic levels is unknown. I tested the relationship between habitat quality, home-range size and density using a wide-ranging, well-studied, top carnivore, the mountain lion (Puma concolor). First, I created a second-order resource selection function (RSF) for mountain lions in their current North American range using GPS collar data from 476 individuals in 20 study sites and remotely-sensed landscape data. I used the RSF and home range estimates derived from collared animals to quantify mountain …

Helminth And Protozoan Parasites Of Subterranean Rodents (Chordata, Mammalia, Rodentia) Of The World, Altangerel Tsogtsaikhan Dursahinhan, Daniel A. Kenkel, Scott Lyell Gardner

Scott L. Gardner Publications

Published studies and ten new unpublished records included herein reveal that approximately 174 species of endoparasites (helminths and protozoans) are known from 65 of 163 species of rodents that occupy the subterranean ecotope globally. Of those, 94 endoparasite species were originally described from these rodents. A total of 282 host-parasite associations are summarized from four major zoogeographic regions including Ethiopian, Palearctic/Oriental, Nearctic, and Neotropical. Thirty-four parasite records from the literature have been identified to only the level of the genus. In this summary, ten new records have been added, and the most current taxonomic status of each parasite species is …

Intercontinental Comparisons Of Subterranean Host-Parasite Communities Using Bipartite Network Analyses, Altangerel Tsogtsaikhan Dursahinhan, Sebastian Botero-Cañola, Scott L. Gardner

Scott L. Gardner Publications

Rodents living in a subterranean ecotope face a unique combination of evolutionary and ecological pressures and while host species evolution may be driven by the selective pressure from the parasites they harbour, the parasites may be responding to the selective pressures of the host. Here we obtained all available subterranean rodent host-parasite records from the literature and integrated these data by utilizing a bipartite network analysis to determine multiple critical parameters to quantify and measure the structure and interactions of the organisms present in host-parasite communities. A total of 163 species of subterranean rodent hosts, 174 parasite species, and 282 …

“Revisiting The Past”: A Redescription Of Physaloptera Retusa (Nemata, Physalopteridae) From Material Deposited In Museums And New Material From Amazon Lizards = “Revisitando O Passado”: Uma Redescrição De Physaloptera Retusa (Nemata, Physalopteridae) A Partir De Material Depositado Em Museus E Novo Material De Lagartos Amazônicos, Lílian Cristina Macedo, Yuri Willkens, Leandro Maurício Oliveira Da Silva, Scott Lyell Gardner, Francisco Tiago De Vasconcelos Melo, Jeannie Nascimento Dos Santos

Scott L. Gardner Publications

Abstract

Physaloptera Rudolphi, 1819 is a genus of nematodes that includes approximately 100 species parasitic in vertebrates around the world. From these, approximately 30 occur in the Neotropical region, with nine reported from neotropical reptiles. Physaloptera spp. are recognized by their distinct morphology of the apical end and characters of the reproductive system. However, despite the fact that the morphological characters for species diagnosis have been firmly established, we frequently find identification problems regarding poorly detailed descriptions and poorly preserved specimens. These may lead to taxonomic incongruencies. Physaloptera retusa (Rudolphi, 1819) is the most common species of the genus and …

Tapping Into Natural History Collections To Assess Latitudinal Gradients Of Parasite Diversity, Sebastian Botero-Cañola, Scott Lyell Gardner

Scott L. Gardner Publications

Parasites are key components of the biosphere not only due to their huge diversity, but also because they exert important influences on ecological processes. Nevertheless, we lack an understanding of the biogeographical patterns of parasite diversity. Here, we tap into the potential of biodiversity collections for understanding parasite biogeography. We assess species richness of supracommunities of helminth parasites infecting mammal assemblages in the Nearctic, and describe its relation to latitude, climate, host diversity, and land area. We compiled data from parasitology collections and assessed parasite diversity in Nearctic ecoregions for the entire parasite supracommunity of mammals in each ecoregion, as …

Filling The Gap In Distribution Ranges And Conservation Status In Ctenomys (Rodentia: Ctenomyidae), Diego A. Caraballo, Sabrina Laura Lopez, Sebastian Botero-Cañola, Scott Lyell Gardner

Scott L. Gardner Publications

South American subterranean rodents of the genus Ctenomys (Rodentia, Ctenomyidae, tuco-tuco) are one of the most diverse genera among mammals. Recently described species, new taxonomic revisions, and new distribution range delimitation made the revision of distribution areas and conservation status of these mammals mandatory. Implementing the first part of the DAMA protocol (document, assess, monitor, act), here we compile updated sets of species distribution range maps and use these and the number of collection localities to assess the conservation status of ctenomyids. We integrate potential for conservation in protected areas, and levels of habitat transformation to revise previous conservation status …

Diagnosing Neurocysticercosis In Skeletonized Human Remains Of Forensic Importance, John O. Obafunwa, Karl Reinhard

Karl Reinhard Publications

Neurocysticercosis is endemic in many parts of the underdeveloped and developing countries, with continuous presence in developed countries due to the influx of migrants from regions where the diseases are endemic. Neuroimaging, anatomic pathological techniques, immunodiagnostic tests, clinical examination and epidemiologic considerations will easily provide the diagnosis. However, physicians in developed countries are perhaps progressively missing the diagnosis, and need to re-acquaint themselves with the condition and acquire a high suspicion index. The authors present a medicolegal case where the forensic team made a conclusion of neurocysticercosis (among other diagnoses), following post mortem examination of a largely skeletonized and mummified …

Exploring The Evolution Of Trypanosoma Cruzi And The Emergence Of Chagas Disease In The Context Of Environmental Change: Applying The Stockholm Paradigm To Archaeoparasitology, Part I, Aida Romera Barbera, Daniel R. Brooks, T. Michael Fink, Karl J. Reinhard

Karl Reinhard Publications

The Stockholm Paradigm is an evolutionary synthesis that explains the emergence of novel pathogens in the context of environmental disturbances. Considering the urgent climate change situation, anticipation stands as key to prevent and mitigate the effects that climate change can have in the emergence of pathogens. However, the success of preventive measures is hindered by a limited knowledge of the interplaying dynamics between biology, environment, and culture leading to emerging infectious diseases. For many decades, bioarchaeologists have been gathering data on past human-environment interactions, therefore contributing to the conversation. Archaeoparasitology, at the intersection between pathology, bioarchaeology, and biology, is uniquely …

Documenting The Presence Of Chagas Disease In Prehistoric North America: Applying The Stockholm Paradigm To Archaeoparasitology, Part Ii, Karl J. Reinhard, Daniel R. Brooks, Aida Romera Barbera, T. Michael Fink

Karl Reinhard Publications

The DAMA protocol (Document, Assess, Monitor, Act) is the applied aspect of the Stockholm Paradigm. Evidence from archaeology and history of medicine has a demonstrated value in documenting infection risk for specific study areas. Bioarchaeological remains and historical documents show vivid examples of pathology related to the Chagas disease life cycle. The science of archaeology defines the lifestyles that created risk of triatomine kissing bug infestations and trypanosome protozoa infections. Paleogenetics, in the form of molecular analyses of Trypanosoma cruzi, elucidate the temporal origins of genetic variants and adaptation to human environments. We illustrate how these fields reveal the risk …

Range-Wide Sources Of Variation In Reproductive Rates Of Northern Spotted Owls, Jeremy T. Rockweit, Julianna M. Jenkins, James E. Hines, James D. Nichols, Katie M. Dugger, Alan B. Franklin, Peter C. Carlson, William L. Kendall, Damon B. Lesmeister, Christopher Mccafferty, Steven H. Ackers, L. Steven Andrews, Larissa L. Bailey, Jesse Burgher, Kenneth P. Burnham, Tara Chestnut, Mary M. Conner, Raymond J. Davis, Krista E. Dilione, Eric D. Forsman, Elizabeth M. Glenn, Scott A. Gremel, Keith A. Hamm, Dale R. Herter, J. Mark Higley, Rob B. Horn, David W. Lamphear, Trent L. Mcdonald, Janice A. Reid, Carl J. Schwarz, David C. Simon, Stan G. Sovern, James K. Swingle, J. David Wiens, Heather Wise, Charles B. Yackulic

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

We conducted a range-wide investigation of the dynamics of site-level reproductive rate of northern spotted owls using survey data from 11 study areas across the subspecies geographic range collected during 1993–2018. Our analytical approach accounted for imperfect detection of owl pairs and misclassification of successful reproduction (i.e., at least one young fledged) and contributed further insights into northern spotted owl population ecology and dynamics. Both nondetection and state misclassification were important, especially because factors affecting these sources of error also affected focal ecological parameters. Annual probabilities of site occupancy were greatest at sites with successful reproduction in the previous year …

Demographic And Functional Responses Of Kit Foxes To Changes In Prey Abundance, Ashley E. Hodge, Eric M. Gese, Bryan M. Kluever

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Many carnivores exhibit demographic and functional responses to changes in prey abundance. Demographic responses often include changes in population size, litter size, and recruitment of young into the adult population. Functional feeding responses are commonly reported for many carnivore species. We investigated demographic and functional responses of kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis Merriam, 1888) to changes in prey abundance during 2010–2013 in western Utah, USA. Between 2010 and 2013, litter size averaged 3.9 (±1.4) pups/litter. Survival rates of kit fox pups were 0.07, 0.01, 0.46, and 0.16, respectively, and there was a correlation between pup survival rates and rodent abundance; …

Comparison Of An Antioxidant Source And Antioxidant Plus Bcaa On Athletic Performance And Post Exercise Recovery Of Horses, Emily Kent, Stephen J. Coloman, Jason E. Bruemmer, Renan Regatieri Casagrande, Christine Levihn, Grace Romo, Kevin Herkelman, Tanja Hess

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Antioxidant supplementation decreases postexercise oxidative stress but could also decrease muscle pro- tein synthesis. This study compared the effects of three diets: low antioxidant (control, CON), high an- tioxidant (AO), and branched-chain amino acid high antioxidant (BCAO) supplementation on postexercise protein synthesis and oxidative stress. We hypothesized that supplementing antioxidants with branched- chain amino acids(BCAA) would reduce oxidative stress without hindering muscle protein synthesis. Eigh- teen mixed-breed polo horses (11 mares and 7 geldings, with age range between 5 and 18 years, were on CON diet for 30 days (from day -45 until day 0) and then were assigned to …

High Winds And Melting Sea Ice Trigger Landward Movement In A Polar Bear Population Of Concern, Annie Kellner, Todd C. Atwood, David C. Douglas, Stewart W. Breck, Colorado State University - Fort Collins

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Some animal species are responding to climate change by altering the timing of events like mating and migration. Such behavioral plasticity can be adaptive, but it is not always. Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) from the southern Beaufort Sea subpopulation have mostly remained on ice year-round, but as the climate warms and summer sea ice declines, a growing proportion of the subpopulation is summering ashore. The triggers of this novel behavior are not well understood. Our study uses a parametric time-to-event model to test whether biological and/or time-varying environmental variables thought to influence polar bear movement and habitat selection …

Space Use And Movements Of Southeastern Breeding Double-Crested Cormorants (Nannopterum Auritum) In The United States, Leah L.K. Moran, Brian S. Dorr, Katie C. Hanson-Dorr, R. J. Moore, Scott A. Rush

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Abstract: Seasonal movements of Double-crested Cormorants (Nannopterum auritum) have been studied at breeding and wintering sites in the southeastern United States, but little information exists on the movements of these birds within and from their southern breeding sites in lacustrine systems. Since 2001, cormorants have established nesting colonies on islands in Guntersville Reservoir in Alabama, USA. Following the movements of tagged cormorants using satellite telemetry, we found that the mean home range during the 2017 breeding season (May–August) was 41.76 km², with a core use area of 6.36 km². The mean home range used …

Behavior Of Wild Pigs Toward Conspecific Carcasses: Implications For Disease Transmission In A Hot, Semiarid Climate, Samantha Leivers, Tyler Campbell, Michael J. Bodenchuk, John Tomeĉek

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are a prolific, invasive species in the United States of America and act as vectors for many pathogens. An emerging pathogen of concern to the USA is African swine fever (ASF), a deadly viral disease affecting swine that is endemic to Africa and has spread to parts of Europe, Asia, and the Caribbean. ASF affects both wild and domesticated pigs and can be transmitted via several avenues, including interactions between and consumption of dead pigs by their live conspecifics. As wild pigs are considered a serious threat in the transmission of ASF, understanding the …

H7n9 Influenza A Virus Transmission In A Multispecies Barnyard Model, Angela M. Bosco-Lauth, Anna Rodriguez, Rachel M. Maison, Stephanie M. Porter, J. Jeffrey Root

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Influenza A viruses are a diverse group of pathogens that have been responsible for millions of human and avian deaths throughout history. Here, we illustrate the transmission potential of H7N9 influenza A virus between Coturnix quail (Coturnix sp.), domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus), chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus), and house sparrows (Passer domesticus) co-housed in an artificial barnyard setting. In each of four replicates, individuals from a single species were infected with the virus. Quail shed virus orally and were a source of infection for both chickens and ducks. Infected chickens transmitted the virus to quail but not to ducks or …

Genomic Analyses Of Gray Fox Lineages Suggest Ancient Divergence And Secondary Contact In The Southern Great Plains, Elizabeth M. Kierepka, Sophie Preckler-Quisquater, Dawn M. Reding, Antoinette Piaggio, Seth P.D. Riley, Benjamin N. Sacks

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) lineage diverged from all other extant canids at their most basal node and is restricted to the Americas. Previous mitochondrial analysis from coastal populations identified deeply divergent (up to 1 Mya) eastern and western lineages that predate most intraspecific splits in carnivores. We conducted genotyping by sequencing and mitochondrial analysis on gray foxes sampled across North America to determine geographic concordance between nuclear and mitochondrial contact zones and divergence times. We also estimated the admixture within the contact zone between eastern and western gray foxes based on nuclear DNA. Both datasets confirmed that …

Writing Statistical Methods For Ecologists, Amy J. Davis, Shannon Kay

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The Methods section is a key component of any ecology research publication containing detailed information on how the data were collected and analyzed. However, descriptions of which statistical methods were used and how they were applied can substantially vary and may not provide enough information for the analyses to be reproducible. Computational and statistical programming advances have allowed ecological researchers without a strong statistical or mathematical background to access and use increasingly complex statistical methods. Thus, statistical methods are written by and need to be accessible to researchers across a range of quantitative expertise. Poorly written Methods sections can incorrectly …

Variance In Offspring Sex Ratio And Maternal Allocation In A Highly Invasive Mammal, Sarah M. Chinn, Timothy J. Smyser, James C. Beasley

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Skewed sex ratios at birth are widely reported in wild populations, however, the extent to which parents are able to modulate the sex ratio of offspring to maximize their own fitness remains unclear. This is particularly true for highly polytocous species as maximizing fitness may include trade-offs between sex ratio and the size and number of offspring in litters. In such cases, it may be adaptive for mothers to adjust both the number of offspring per litter and offspring sex to maximize individual fitness. Investigating maternal sex allocation in wild pigs (Sus scrofa) under stochastic environmental conditions, we predicted that …

The Past, Present, And Future Of Equine Science, Sarah H. White-Springer, Jason E. Bruemmer, Robert J. Coleman

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

A core group of 27 equine nutritionists and physiologists joined together in the late 1960s to formally address and enhance the direction of equine research, creating the Equine Nutrition and Physiology Soci- ety. In 2003, that growing society transformed into the Equine Science Society, which now serves as the preeminent, internationally recognized scientific equine organization. In recent years, it has been appre- ciated that equine science encompasses a wide range of focus areas, including exercise science, nutrition, genetics, reproductive physiology, teaching and extension, production and management, and mix of other specialties, qualified as biosciences. Additionally, trainees are highly valued in …

Invasive Frogs Show Persistent Physiological Differences To Elevation And Acclimate To Colder Temperatures, Jack R. Marchetti, Karen H. Beard, Emily E. Virgin, Erin L. Lewis, Steven C. Hess, Kwanho C. Ki, Layne O. Sermersheim, Adriana P. Furtado, Susannah S. French

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The coqui frog (Eleutherodactylus coqui) was introduced to the island of Hawai’i in the 1980s and has spread across much of the island. Concern remains that this frog will continue to expand its range and invade higher elevation habitats where much of the island’s endemic species are found. We determined whether coqui thermal tolerance and physiology change along Hawai’i’s elevational gradients. We measured physiological responses using a short-term experiment to determine baseline tolerance and physiology by elevation, and a long-term experiment to determine the coqui’s ability to acclimate to different temperatures. We collected frogs from low, medium, and …

Integrating Robotics Into Wildlife Conservation: Testing Improvements To Predator Deterrents Through Movement, Stewart W. Breck, Jeffrey T. Schultz, David Prause, Cameron Krebs, Anthony J. Giordano, Byron Boots

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Background Agricultural and pastoral landscapes can provide important habitat for wildlife conservation, but sharing these landscapes with wildlife can create conflict that is costly and requires managing. Livestock predation is a good example of the challenges involving coexistence with wildlife across shared landscapes. Integrating new technology into agricultural practices could help minimize human-wildlife conflict. In this study, we used concepts from the fields of robotics (i.e., automated movement and adaptiveness) and agricultural practices (i.e., managing livestock risk to predation) to explore how integration of these concepts could aid the development of more effective predator deterrents.

Methods …

Transmission Of Sars-Cov-2 In Free-Ranging White-Tailed Deer In The United States, Aijing Feng, Sarah Bevins, Jeff Chandler, Thomas J. Deliberto, Ria Ghai, Kristina Lantz, Julianna Lenoch, Adam Retchless, Susan A. Shriner, Cynthia Y. Tang, Suxiang Sue Tong, Mia Torchetti, Anna Uehara, Xiu-Feng Wan

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

SARS-CoV-2 is a zoonotic virus with documented bi-directional transmission between people and animals. Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from humans to free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) poses a unique public health risk due to the potential for reservoir establishment where variantsmay persist and evolve. We collected 8,830 respiratory samples from free-ranging white-tailed deer across Washington, D.C. and 26 states in the United States between November 2021 and April 2022. We obtained 391 sequences and identified 34 Pango lineages including the Alpha, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron variants. Evolutionary analyses showed these white-tailed deer viruses originated fromat least 109 independent spillovers fromhumans,which resulted in …

A Social Network Analysis Of Actors Involved In Wild Pig (Sus Scrofa) Management In Missouri, Hailey E. Ellis, Meredith J. Grady, Lauren Jaebker, Alan D. Bright, Keith M. Carlisle

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) cause significant damage to agriculture and native ecosystems and can transmit diseases to animals and people. Management responses designed to reduce population numbers are needed to mitigate these threats. Identifying networks of key actors, including the ways in which they interact, is valuable for purposes of better understanding opportunities or constraints that generate or impede effective management responses. The goal of our study was to understand the network of organizations, and the personnel working within them, that were active in wild pig management, research, or policy initiatives in Missouri during 2018–2020 by 1) identifying …

Assessment Of Habitat‐Specific Competition For Oral Rabies Vaccine Baits Between Raccoons And Opossums, James L. Helton, Jacob E. Hill, David A. Bernasconi, Wesley C. Dixon, Richard B. Chipman, Amy Gilbert, James C. Beasley, Guha Dharmarajan, Olin E. Rhodes Jr.

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Throughout the eastern United States, the National Rabies Management Program (NRMP) distributes oral rabies vaccine (ORV) baits to manage rabies virus circulation in raccoon (Procyon lotor) populations. The consumption of vaccine baits by non‐target species including Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) may reduce the effectiveness of ORV programs, but competition for baits remains poorly quantified in many areas of the southeastern United States. We distributed placebo ORV baits injected with a biomarker across 4 land cover types (bottomland hardwood, upland pine, riparian, isolated wetland) on the Savannah River Site in South Carolina, USA, 2017–2019. We then trapped …

Fusion Of Visible And Thermal Images Improves Automated Detection And Classification Of Animals For Drone Surveys, B. Santhana Krishnan, Landon R. Jones, Jared A. Elmore, Sathishkumar Samiappan, Kristine O. Evans, Morgan Pfeiffer, Bradley Blackwell, Raymond Iglay

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Visible and thermal images acquired from drones (unoccupied aircraft systems) have substantially improved animal monitoring. Combining complementary information from both image types provides a powerful approach for automating detection and classification of multiple animal species to augment drone surveys. We compared eight image fusion methods using thermal and visible drone images combined with two supervised deep learning models, to evaluate the detection and classification of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), domestic cow (Bos taurus), and domestic horse (Equus caballus). We classified visible and thermal images separately and compared them with the results of image fusion. …