Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®

Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons™

Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®

2018

Attention

Discipline
Institution
Publication
Publication Type

Articles 1 - 29 of 29

Full-Text Articles in Social and Behavioral Sciences

The Roles Of Biophilic Attitudes And Auditory Stimuli Within Attention Restoration Theory, Jason B. Boggs Dec 2018

The Roles Of Biophilic Attitudes And Auditory Stimuli Within Attention Restoration Theory, Jason B. Boggs

UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones

Attention Restoration Theory indicates that interacting with nature allows one’s fatigued, directed attention to be restored. This effect has been documented and produced through directed interaction with nature, such as a walk in the park, as well as through indirect interactions (e.g., photographs). The current dissertation was designed to: 1) investigate whether and how biophilic attitudes affect the attention-restoring effects incurred from interactions with nature, and 2) extend the research on ART by assessing the impact of nature-related audio stimuli. A total of 184 participants completed an assessment of biophilic attitudes, engaged in attention fatiguing exercises, and participated in one …

Go to article

Impaired Object-Location Learning And Recognition Memory But Enhanced Sustained Attention In M2 Muscarinic Receptor-Deficient Mice, Carola Romberg, Susan Bartko, Jürgen Wess, Lisa M. Saksida, Timothy J. Bussey Dec 2018

Impaired Object-Location Learning And Recognition Memory But Enhanced Sustained Attention In M2 Muscarinic Receptor-Deficient Mice, Carola Romberg, Susan Bartko, Jürgen Wess, Lisa M. Saksida, Timothy J. Bussey

Brain and Mind Institute Researchers' Publications

© 2018, The Author(s). Rationale: Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are known to play key roles in mediating cognitive processes, and impaired muscarinic cholinergic neurotransmission is associated with normal ageing processes and Alzheimer’s disease. However, the specific contributions of the individual muscarinic receptor subtypes (M1–M5) to cognition are presently not well understood. Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the contribution of M2-type muscarinic receptor signalling to sustained attention, executive control and learning and memory. Methods: M2 receptor-deficient (M2−/−) mice were tested on a touchscreen-operated task battery testing visual discrimination, behavioural flexibility, object-location associative learning, attention and response control. Spontaneous …

Go to article

The Consequences Of Processing Of Goal-Irrelevant Information During The Stroop Task In Younger And Older Adults, Jessica Nicosia Dec 2018

The Consequences Of Processing Of Goal-Irrelevant Information During The Stroop Task In Younger And Older Adults, Jessica Nicosia

Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Recent evidence from memory paradigms indicates that older adults can sometimes benefit more from processing goal-irrelevant information than younger adults, however these studies have often failed to simultaneously provide evidence of age-related control deficits. In the present experiments, participants initially studied a list of words. They then received a color-naming Stroop task where neutral words were either previously studied or new words. Across three experiments, participants were given different types of memory tests to examine the lingering effects of the neutral words during color-naming in younger and older adults. The results from all three experiments (including an attempted replication study) …

Go to article

Hearing And Seeing A Speaker: How Perceptual And Cognitive Factors Modulate The Dynamics Of Audiovisual Speech Perception, Elina Kaplan Oct 2018

Hearing And Seeing A Speaker: How Perceptual And Cognitive Factors Modulate The Dynamics Of Audiovisual Speech Perception, Elina Kaplan

Doctoral Dissertations

In face-to-face conversations, listeners process and combine speech information obtained from hearing and seeing the speaker talk. Audiovisual speech typically leads to more robust recognition of speech, as it provides more information for recognition but also as it helps listeners adjust to speaker idiosyncrasies. The goal of the current thesis was to examine how certain perceptual and cognitive factors modulate how listeners use visual speech to facilitate momentary speech perception and to adjust to a speaker’s idiosyncrasies. Results showed that (older) listeners’ sensitivity to cross-modal synchrony is related to the size of the audiovisual interactions during early perceptual processing. Furthermore, …

Go to article

Searching Images And The Meaning Of Alarm Calls, Alan B. Bond Sep 2018

Searching Images And The Meaning Of Alarm Calls, Alan B. Bond

Alan Bond Publications

The snake alarm call of Japanese tits prompts nesting adults to search for and mob the reptile until it is driven away. From playback experiments, Suzuki (2018) has inferred that the call provides an associative cue, evoking a searching image of the salient visual features of the predator—a novel approach to exploring visual attention and vocal communication in the wild.

Go to article

Vortioxetine Differentially Modulates Mk-801-Induced Changes In Visual Signal Detection Task Performance And Locomotor Activity, Todd M. Hillhouse, Christina R. Merritt, Douglas A. Smith, Manuel Cajina, Connie Sanchez, Joseph H. Porter, Alan Pehrson Sep 2018

Vortioxetine Differentially Modulates Mk-801-Induced Changes In Visual Signal Detection Task Performance And Locomotor Activity, Todd M. Hillhouse, Christina R. Merritt, Douglas A. Smith, Manuel Cajina, Connie Sanchez, Joseph H. Porter, Alan Pehrson

Department of Psychology Faculty Scholarship and Creative Works

Attention impairment is a common feature of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), and MDD-associated cognitive dysfunction may play an important role in determining functional status among this patient population. Vortioxetine is a multimodal antidepressant that may improve some aspects of cognitive function in MDD patients, and may indirectly increase glutamate neurotransmission in brain regions classically associated with attention function. Previous non-clinical research suggests that vortioxetine has limited effects on attention. This laboratory previously found that vortioxetine did not improve attention function in animals impaired by acute scopolamine administration, using the visual signal detection task (VSDT). However, vortioxetine has limited effects on …

Go to article

Rumination And Rebound From Failure: Investigating How Trait And State Forms Of Ruminative Thought Influence Attention To Errors And The Ability To Correct Them In A Challenging Academic Environment, Ronald C. Whiteman Sep 2018

Rumination And Rebound From Failure: Investigating How Trait And State Forms Of Ruminative Thought Influence Attention To Errors And The Ability To Correct Them In A Challenging Academic Environment, Ronald C. Whiteman

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

Rumination is a recurrent and repetitive manner of thinking that can be triggered by blockage of personally-relevant goals, creating a temporary state of abstract and evaluative self-focus that can also become a chronic trait-like style of responding to personal challenges. Despite claims that rumination helps down-regulate unwanted emotion, cope with problems, and lead to goal attainment, it often increases negative affect, interferes with problem solving, and exacerbates goal-state discrepancies, particularly for women. Given the pervasiveness of rumination and its potential impact on cognitive processes and emotional states, one important yet untested question is how it might impact individuals’ ability to …

Go to article

Brief Mindfulness Meditation Improves Attention In Novices: Evidence From Erps And Moderation By Neuroticism, Catherine Norris, Daniel R. Creem , '16, R. Hendler, H. Kober Aug 2018

Brief Mindfulness Meditation Improves Attention In Novices: Evidence From Erps And Moderation By Neuroticism, Catherine Norris, Daniel R. Creem , '16, R. Hendler, H. Kober

Psychology Faculty Works

Past research has found that mindfulness meditation training improves executive attention. Event-related potentials (ERPs) have indicated that this effect could be driven by more efficient allocation of resources on demanding attentional tasks, such as the Flanker Task and the Attention Network Test (ANT). However, it is not clear whether these changes depend on long-term practice. In two studies, we sought to investigate the effects of a brief, 10-min meditation session on attention in novice meditators, compared to a control activity. We also tested moderation by individual differences in neuroticism and the possible underlying neural mechanisms driving these effects, using ERPs. …

Go to article

Long-Term Focus Of Attentional Biases, Garrett Pollert Aug 2018

Long-Term Focus Of Attentional Biases, Garrett Pollert

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Prior research regarding attentional biases, or patterns of visual attention, have focused on attention over the initial second when exposed to pictoral food stimuli. This manuscript reviews the literature regarding attentional biases in overweight/obese individuals over this timeframe for the two previously defined components of attentional bias (attentional orientation and attentional maintenance). A new component is proposed, called “attentional re-engagement,” defined as the pattern of attentional shifts towards target stimulus types over longer periods of time. Overweight/Obese and Normal-weighted participants were recruited and engaged in an Extended Dot Probe task, wherein attentional orientation, maintenance, and re-engagement were assessed using the …

Go to article

Increased Attention And Memory For Beloved-Related Information During Infatuation: Behavioral And Electrophysiological Data, Sandra J. E. Langeslag, Jamie R. Oliver, Martine E. Köhlen, Ilse M. Nijs Jun 2018

Increased Attention And Memory For Beloved-Related Information During Infatuation: Behavioral And Electrophysiological Data, Sandra J. E. Langeslag, Jamie R. Oliver, Martine E. Köhlen, Ilse M. Nijs

Sandra Langeslag

Emotionally salient information is well attended and remembered. It has been shown that infatuated individuals have increased attention for their beloved. It is unknown whether this attention bias generalizes to information related to the beloved. Moreover, infatuated individuals report to remember trivial things about their beloved, but this has not yet been tested empirically. In two studies, we tested whether infatuated individuals have increased attention and memory for beloved-related information. In a passive viewing task (Study 1), the late positive potential, an event-related potential (ERP) component reflecting motivated attention, was enhanced for beloved-related vs friend-related words/phrases. In a recognition task …

Go to article

Examining The Influence Of Executive Resources And Mathematical Abilities On Framing Biases, Gabriel Allred May 2018

Examining The Influence Of Executive Resources And Mathematical Abilities On Framing Biases, Gabriel Allred

UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones

The finding that the presentation of a choice (i.e., either as a loss or a gain) can affect and bias our willingness to engage in risk is one of the paramount findings of behavioral economics. First discussed by Tversky and Kahneman (1981), the framing effect demonstrates that when given two choices framed as a loss, we tend to become risk seeking. However, when the exact same outcome is presented as a gain, we become risk averse, choosing the more conservative option, regardless of the actual expected value. The effect is not limited to general research samples but has been demonstrated …

Go to article

Change Deafness: A Comprehensive Examinations, Vanessa Claire Irsik May 2018

Change Deafness: A Comprehensive Examinations, Vanessa Claire Irsik

UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones

Environmental changes are a vital source of information which can drive advantageous behavioral responses. For example, detecting visual changes can be critical when driving a vehicle or when simply walking down a busy street. Auditory perception is an essential complement to vision as it can allow awareness of changes in and out of sight. While subjective perception would suggest that our sensory representation of the world is complete, research on change deafness indicates that quite often the opposite is true. Healthy listeners often miss salient, suprathreshold auditory changes. Three separate manuscripts will be presented, each of which aims to advance …

Go to article

Experiential Journalism: Presence, Emotion, And Sharing Behaviors In News Delivered By Virtual Reality, Television, And Internet In Korea And The United States, Sung Yoon Ri May 2018

Experiential Journalism: Presence, Emotion, And Sharing Behaviors In News Delivered By Virtual Reality, Television, And Internet In Korea And The United States, Sung Yoon Ri

Dissertations - ALL

This research has three overarching purposes. First, this dissertation aimed to test VR’s capability as a news medium compared to TV and Web. Second, this research attempted to identify differences in Koreans and the U.S. respondents to VR news, TV news, and Web news. Third, this formulated a theoretical model regarding media user’s news information processing across VR, TV, and Web: Model of Interactive News Consumption Across Media (MINCAM). A 2 x 2 x 3 mixed design study was conducted using the between-subjects factors of country (Korea/the U.S.) and story proximity (Seoul, Korea/Syracuse, New York) as well as the within-subjects …

Go to article

Electrophysiological Biomarkers Of Chemotherapy-Related Cognitive Impairment In Hematological Malignancy Patients, David E. Anderson May 2018

Electrophysiological Biomarkers Of Chemotherapy-Related Cognitive Impairment In Hematological Malignancy Patients, David E. Anderson

Theses & Dissertations

Multiple cancer populations frequently report cognitive impairment following treatment with chemotherapy agents (“chemo-brain”). Impaired neuropsychological performance is commonly reported in cognitive domains of attention and executive function. Understanding neural mechanisms underlying cognitive impairments is essential to developing prevention and rehabilitation strategies. Brain imaging studies frequently show chemotherapy-related impairments within the attentional control network, which is comprised of a constellation of cortical regions that govern reportedly impaired cognitive functions. In the current dissertation research, I developed a novel electrophysiology battery aimed at recording near-instantaneous neural activity within the attentional control network during cognitive task performance. Cancer patients diagnosed with hematological malignancy …

Go to article

A Comparison Of Function- And Nonfunction-Based Extinction For Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior, Caitlin Kirkwood May 2018

A Comparison Of Function- And Nonfunction-Based Extinction For Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior, Caitlin Kirkwood

Theses & Dissertations

Previous literature supports the use of a functional analysis to prescribe treatment for children with feeding disorders (Bachmeyer et al., 2009; Piazza, Fisher, et al., 2003). Nevertheless, clinicians often train caregivers to use healthy contingencies, independent of whether those contingencies are function based. We do not know, however, whether including nonfunction-based contingencies differentially affects inappropriate mealtime behavior. In the current study, we observed that caregivers of 3 children with feeding disorders provided escape from bites and drinks and attention following inappropriate mealtime behavior. Results of a functional analysis showed escape from bites or drinks, but not attention, reinforced inappropriate mealtime …

Go to article

Assessing The Role Of Accuracy-Based Feedback In Value-Driven Attentional Capture, Michael A. Grubb, Yuxuan Li May 2018

Assessing The Role Of Accuracy-Based Feedback In Value-Driven Attentional Capture, Michael A. Grubb, Yuxuan Li

Faculty Scholarship

© 2018, The Psychonomic Society, Inc. Despite being physically nonsalient and task-irrelevant, objects rendered in a color that once signaled monetary reward reflexively capture attention during visual search, a phenomenon known as value-driven attentional capture (VDAC). However, it remains a subject of empirical controversy whether learned reward associations are necessary to driving subsequent attentional capture: VDAC-like effects have been observed when accuracy-based feedback alone was used during the VDAC training phase, resulting in attentional capture by objects that were never associated with monetary reward; perplexingly, the presence of these VDAC-like effects in the literature conflicts with those of a number …

Go to article

Does The Mere Presence Of A Cell Phone Impair Task Performance?, Sabrina Urick, Kaylee Egbers, Veronica Sinell Apr 2018

Does The Mere Presence Of A Cell Phone Impair Task Performance?, Sabrina Urick, Kaylee Egbers, Veronica Sinell

Celebrating Scholarship and Creativity Day (2018-)

The purpose of our study was to determine if the mere presence of a person’s cell phone serves as a distraction that impairs task performance, even if the person does not use it. In order to test this, we had two groups of participants complete several tasks that require attention and accurate memory in order to perform well. The tasks used were a card matching game (sometimes known as Concentration), a sequential memory game (Simon), and the n-back task. One group was instructed to put their cell phones away before they were presented with the tasks and the other group …

Go to article

Seeing The Forest And The Trees: Default Local Processing In Individuals With High Autistic Traits Does Not Come At The Expense Of Global Attention., Ryan A Stevenson, Sol Z Sun, Naomi Hazlett, Jonathan S Cant, Morgan D Barense, Susanne Ferber Apr 2018

Seeing The Forest And The Trees: Default Local Processing In Individuals With High Autistic Traits Does Not Come At The Expense Of Global Attention., Ryan A Stevenson, Sol Z Sun, Naomi Hazlett, Jonathan S Cant, Morgan D Barense, Susanne Ferber

Brain and Mind Institute Researchers' Publications

Atypical sensory perception is one of the most ubiquitous symptoms of autism, including a tendency towards a local-processing bias. We investigated whether local-processing biases were associated with global-processing impairments on a global/local attentional-scope paradigm in conjunction with a composite-face task. Behavioural results were related to individuals' levels of autistic traits, specifically the Attention to Detail subscale of the Autism Quotient, and the Sensory Profile Questionnaire. Individuals showing high rates of Attention to Detail were more susceptible to global attentional-scope manipulations, suggesting that local-processing biases associated with Attention to Detail do not come at the cost of a global-processing deficit, but …

Go to article

Investigating The Effects Of Sensory Learning In Rats Using Intra And Extra Stimulus Modalities, Ariel M. Kershner Apr 2018

Investigating The Effects Of Sensory Learning In Rats Using Intra And Extra Stimulus Modalities, Ariel M. Kershner

Faculty Curated Undergraduate Works

The purpose of this study was to see what rats learn about the elements of a compound stimulus (a stimulus composed of two different stimuli), and whether their learning differs if the compound is from the same modality (intra-modal), i.e. both visual, or from different modalities (inter-modal), i.e. visual and auditory. We hypothesized that the rats would respond more to the compound stimuli than to the single stimuli (Pearce and Wilson, 1990), more to the compound modality of inter-modal elements than to the compound modality of intra-modal elements (Miller, 1971 and Gingras, 2009), equally to the intra-modal elements (Rescorla, 1972), …

Go to article

Comparing The Distraction Of Cell Phone Conversations To In-Person Conversations On A Simulated Commercial Flight, Tianhua Li, Andrew R. Dattel Mar 2018

Comparing The Distraction Of Cell Phone Conversations To In-Person Conversations On A Simulated Commercial Flight, Tianhua Li, Andrew R. Dattel

International Journal of Aviation, Aeronautics, and Aerospace

The purpose of the study was to determine the difference in participants’ attention to announcements and compliance with safety behaviors when talking on a cell phone and when talking face-to-face in a simulated commercial flight. Currently, passengers are forbidden from making cell phone calls during flights in the United States due to electronic interference. However, any possible interference can be eliminated with the help of new technology. Although talking on the cell phone does not cause electronic interference, the distraction of a passenger caused by a cell phone may negatively impact safety. This study compared the extent of safety compliance …

Go to article

Visual Scanning Of Males And Females In Infancy, Hannah B. White, Alyson J. Hock, Rachel L. Jubran, Alison Heck, Ramesh S. Bhatt Feb 2018

Visual Scanning Of Males And Females In Infancy, Hannah B. White, Alyson J. Hock, Rachel L. Jubran, Alison Heck, Ramesh S. Bhatt

Psychology Faculty Publications

This study addressed the development of attention to information that is socially relevant to adults by examining infants' (n = 64) scanning patterns of male and female bodies. Infants exhibited systematic attention to regions associated with sex-related scanning by adults, with 3.5-and 6.5-month-olds looking longer at the torso of females than males and longer at the legs of males than females. However, this pattern of looking was not found when infants were tested on headless bodies in Experiment 2, which suggests that infants' differential gaze pattern in Experiment 1 was not due to low-level stimulus features, such as clothing, and …

Go to article

Towards Improving Learning With Consumer-Grade, Closed-Loop, Electroencephalographic Neurofeedback, Zall Soren Hirschstein Jan 2018

Towards Improving Learning With Consumer-Grade, Closed-Loop, Electroencephalographic Neurofeedback, Zall Soren Hirschstein

Senior Projects Spring 2018

Learning is an enigmatic process composed of a multitude of cognitive systems that are functionally and neuroanatomically distinct. Nevertheless, two undeniable pillars which underpin learning are attention and memory; to learn, one must attend, and maintain a representation of, an event. Psychological and neuroscientific technologies that permit researchers to “mind-read” have revealed much about the dynamics of these distinct processes that contribute to learning. This investigation first outlines the cognitive pillars which support learning and the technologies that permit such an understanding. It then employs a novel task—the amSMART paradigm—with the goal of building a real-time, closed-loop, electroencephalographic (EEG) neurofeedback …

Go to article

The Effects Anxiety Has On Attentional Bias And Working Memory, Breana Mcswain Jan 2018

The Effects Anxiety Has On Attentional Bias And Working Memory, Breana Mcswain

USC Aiken Psychology Theses

Research has shown that anxiety impairs attention and working memory, especially when it comes to completing a mentally demanding cognitive task such as the emotional Stroop paradigm or the n-back task. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether state anxiety affects behavioral performance on executive function tasks. State anxiety was induced using negatively valenced images from the International Affective Picture System, while neutral images served as the control. We compared behavioral performance between individuals in the negative mood induction against those in the neutral mood induction. Trait anxiety was used as a covariate for both groups. This allowed …

Go to article

Auditory Distraction On Visual Translation: Language Interference In Spanish-English Bilinguals, Violet A. Young Jan 2018

Auditory Distraction On Visual Translation: Language Interference In Spanish-English Bilinguals, Violet A. Young

Digital Repository: Showcase of Undergraduate Research Excellence

No abstract provided.

Go to article

The Influence Of Television Pacing On Attention And Executive Functioning, Timothy Lavigne Jan 2018

The Influence Of Television Pacing On Attention And Executive Functioning, Timothy Lavigne

Graduate College Dissertations and Theses

Television shows, especially cartoons, are one of the most common types of media in children’s lives. Although there is a well-established connection between television exposure and difficulties with attention, it is unclear if all types of television are equally impactful. Given the amount of time children are exposed to television, there is a need to better understand which components of shows may or may not impact one’s attentional and executive functioning abilities. One such factor is the pace of the content. The current study expands on this limited area of the literature by utilizing a 9-minute 30-second long cartoon video, …

Go to article

Beyond Big Bird, Binders, And Bayonets: Humor And Visibility Among Connected Viewers Of The 2012 Us Presidential Debates, Kevin Driscoll, Alex Leavitt, Kristen L. Guth, François Bar, Aalok Mehta Jan 2018

Beyond Big Bird, Binders, And Bayonets: Humor And Visibility Among Connected Viewers Of The 2012 Us Presidential Debates, Kevin Driscoll, Alex Leavitt, Kristen L. Guth, François Bar, Aalok Mehta

Communication Faculty Publications

During the 2012 US presidential debates, more than five million connected viewers turned to social media to respond to the broadcast and talk politics with one another. Using a mixed-methods approach, this study examines the prevalence of humor and its relationship to visibility among connected viewers live-tweeting the debates. Based on a content analysis of tweets and accounts, we estimate that approximately one-fifth of the messages sent during the debates consisted of strictly humorous content. Using retweet frequency as a proxy for visibility, we found a positive relationship between the use of humor and the visibility of individual tweets. Not …

Go to article

Visual Search In Naturalistic Imagery, Dave Schreifels Jan 2018

Visual Search In Naturalistic Imagery, Dave Schreifels

Dissertations, Master's Theses and Master's Reports

Visual search has been extensively studied in the laboratory, yielding broad insights into how we search through and attend to the world around us. In order to know if these insights are valid, however, this research must not be confined to the sanitized imagery typically found within the lab. Comparatively little research has been conducted on visual search within naturalistic settings, and this gap must therefore be bridged in order to further our understanding of visual search. Based on the results of Experiment 1, Experiment 2 was conducted to test three common effects observed in previous studies of visual search: …

Go to article

An Analysis Of The Ego-Depletion Effects Of Emotion Versus Attention Draining Tasks: Even Emotionally Arousing Depletion Tasks Do Not Show An Ego-Depletion Effect, Savannah Binion Jan 2018

An Analysis Of The Ego-Depletion Effects Of Emotion Versus Attention Draining Tasks: Even Emotionally Arousing Depletion Tasks Do Not Show An Ego-Depletion Effect, Savannah Binion

Senior Independent Study Theses

The theory of ego-depletion has come under intense scrutiny within the past few years. Beginning around 2010, researchers conducted meta-analyses and large replication studies that have investigated this topic, and found a wide range of evidence for and against the existence of an ego-depletion effect. Although the goal has been to determine whether this effect exists or not, the research has proved that the answer may be more complicated than that. The purpose of the current research was to examine the different theories about self-control, and to test two specific depleting tasks against a control group. The depleting tasks were …

Go to article

Childhood Lead Exposure And Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms: A Meta-Analysis, Megan Glenn Brown Jan 2018

Childhood Lead Exposure And Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms: A Meta-Analysis, Megan Glenn Brown

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Lead exposure during childhood is a significant global public health concern as the potential effects of exposure can result in the need for long-term treatment, diminished productivity in society, and financial strain on the health care system. There is strong evidence of a relationship between lead exposure and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); however, there is a gap in the current literature regarding the relationship between lead exposure and specific symptoms of ADHD and the strength of that relationship. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine and help quantify this relationship. Cohen's d was used as the standardized mean effect size …

Go to article